{"id":207,"date":"2014-06-13T19:41:18","date_gmt":"2014-06-13T19:41:18","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/?post_type=back-matter&#038;p=207"},"modified":"2014-08-29T15:20:59","modified_gmt":"2014-08-29T22:20:59","slug":"physical-geography-research-methods","status":"publish","type":"back-matter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/back-matter\/physical-geography-research-methods\/","title":{"raw":"Physical Geography Research Methods","rendered":"Physical Geography Research Methods"},"content":{"raw":"<h2>Physical Geography\u00a0Sampling<\/h2>\r\nBecause it is impossible to\u00a0measure everything everywhere at the same time, researchers\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">sample<\/strong>.\u00a0Sampling in physical geography is of the utmost importance in order to\u00a0<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">limit the amount of information that you collect, and so that you are careful that your\u00a0<\/span>sample<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">\u00a0is\u00a0<\/span>representative<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">\u00a0of the whole\u00a0<\/span>population<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">.<\/span>\u00a0Sampling is based on three principals:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>The\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">sample<\/strong>\u00a0is the limited number of measurements that you make.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>The\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">population<\/strong>\u00a0is the total number of measurements that you might take.<\/li>\r\n\t<li>A totally\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">representative<\/strong>\u00a0sample is everything you need to know about the\u00a0population.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFor example, weather precipitation stations are located at specific locations across the country.\u00a0The readings from each station are then statistically interpolated to give a picture of a large region. \u00a0The same techniques can be done for soil and stream sampling. There are three types of samplying in physical geography:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\"><strong>Random sampling<\/strong> is used where the study area is uniform. For example, in a flat, grassy field you\u00a0can\u00a0assume that the environmental conditions do not change within the area so\u00a0it doesn\u2019t matter where within the area you take your samples from.<\/span>\u00a0<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">Random sampling should be free from bias,\u00a0but it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The number of samples taken\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">is important.<\/span><\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Systematic sampling<\/strong> is used when the study area includes an environmental gradient. You would sample along a line and\u00a0sample points should be evenly spaced or distributed. Systematic sampling is quick and easy to do, but you must be careful not to\u00a0miss variation. The number of samples that you take (the\u00a0sampling size) is important.<\/li>\r\n\t<li><strong>Stratified sampling<\/strong> is used when the study area includes significantly different parts or subsets. In an investigation into the\u00a0effect of stream ordering on discharge, a stratified sample would be to choose sites where the two river segments of the same order join. Stratified sampling overcomes the problem with missing variation that might arise with systematic sampling. It is, however, difficult to get background data to allow you to apply stratified sampling appropriately.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Further readings.\u00a0 <em>An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in Geography<\/em>.\u00a0 2006\u00a0Montello. D. R. and Sutton. P. C. Sage.<\/div>\r\n<h2>Soil Science Research Methods<\/h2>\r\nSoil testing is done by taking soil samples from different locations of the soil horizons.\u00a0The soil samples are then taken to a lab for further analysis of the content of moisture, minerals, organic matter and air in the soil.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_202\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"360\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-202\" alt=\"Figure 1. Soil examined from a scar made by excavator.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci.jpg\" height=\"458\" width=\"360\" \/><\/a> Figure 1. Soil examined from a scar made by excavator.[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For further readings and additional activities, check Virtual soil science learning resources and lab (<a href=\"http:\/\/soilweb.landfood.ubc.ca\/promo\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/soilweb.landfood.ubc.ca\/promo\/<\/a> Soil testing methods. <a href=\"http:\/\/soiltest.cfans.umn.edu\/our-methods\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/soiltest.cfans.umn.edu\/our-methods<\/a> , and Soil sampling and methods of analysis book. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.planta.cn\/forum\/files_planta\/methods_of_analysis_212.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.planta.cn\/forum\/files_planta\/methods_of_analysis_212.pdf <\/a>You can also check out these suggested textbooks; <em>Soil Science And Management<\/em>. 2008. Plaster. E., Delmar Publishers Inc. and <em>Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils<\/em>. 2009. Brady. N. C. and Weil. R. R. Pearson.<\/div>\r\n<h2>Hydrology\u00a0Research Methods<\/h2>\r\nHydrology is the study of the movement, distribution and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil and environmental engineering. Hydrogogy research makes extensive use of modelling to create conceptual representations of the different parts of the hydrologic cycle.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For more information on hydrology and the types of models used in hydrology, refer to <em>Hydrology: An Introduction<\/em>. 2005. Brutsaert. W., Cambridge University Press,<em>Fundamentals of Hydrology<\/em>. 2008. Davie. T. and Quinn N. Routledge, and <em>Hydrology.<\/em> 2013. Das M. M. and Saikia M. D. PHI Learning Private Limited.<\/div>\r\n<h2>Climatology<\/h2>\r\nClimatology is the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. Weather monitoring stations collect information for decades about temperature; wind velocity and direction; moisture concentration in the air; and precipitation, and indicate a specific climatic condition at a specific part of Earth.\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Suggested textbooks and resources for more information on climatology <em>Climatology.<\/em> 2013. Rohli. R. V. Vega. A. J. Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning, <em>Climatology:<\/em> An Atmospheric Science. 2009. Hidore. J. J. Oliver. J. E. Snow M. Snow R, the <em>Encyclopedia of world climatology<\/em>. 2005. Edited by Oliver. J. E. Springer.<\/div>\r\n<h2>Statistics in Geography<\/h2>\r\nStatistical techniques and procedures are applied in all fields of academic research; wherever data are collected and summarized or wherever any numerical information is analyzed or research is conducted, statistics are needed for sound analysis and interpretation of results.\r\n\r\nGeographers use statistics in numerous ways:\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li>To describe and summarize spatial data<\/li>\r\n\t<li>To make generalizations concerning complex spatial patterns<\/li>\r\n\t<li>To estimate the probability of outcomes for an event at a given location<\/li>\r\n\t<li>To use samples of geographic data to infer characteristics for a larger set of geographic data (population)<\/li>\r\n\t<li>To determine if the magnitude or frequency of some phenomenon differs from one location to another<\/li>\r\n\t<li>To learn whether an actual spatial pattern matches some expected pattern<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For additional information about statistics methods\u00a0in geography, see <em>Statistical Methods for Geography: A Student's Guide<\/em>. 2012. Rogerson. P. A. SAGE Publications Ltd.<\/div>\r\n<h2>Attributions<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n\t<li><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Soil examined from a scar made by excavator. Source: Soil Sci by Paleorthid (<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_sci.jpg\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_sci.jpg<\/a>) is in the public domain<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2>Physical Geography\u00a0Sampling<\/h2>\n<p>Because it is impossible to\u00a0measure everything everywhere at the same time, researchers\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">sample<\/strong>.\u00a0Sampling in physical geography is of the utmost importance in order to\u00a0<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">limit the amount of information that you collect, and so that you are careful that your\u00a0<\/span>sample<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">\u00a0is\u00a0<\/span>representative<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">\u00a0of the whole\u00a0<\/span>population<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">.<\/span>\u00a0Sampling is based on three principals:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">sample<\/strong>\u00a0is the limited number of measurements that you make.<\/li>\n<li>The\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">population<\/strong>\u00a0is the total number of measurements that you might take.<\/li>\n<li>A totally\u00a0<strong class=\"Bold\">representative<\/strong>\u00a0sample is everything you need to know about the\u00a0population.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>For example, weather precipitation stations are located at specific locations across the country.\u00a0The readings from each station are then statistically interpolated to give a picture of a large region. \u00a0The same techniques can be done for soil and stream sampling. There are three types of samplying in physical geography:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\"><strong>Random sampling<\/strong> is used where the study area is uniform. For example, in a flat, grassy field you\u00a0can\u00a0assume that the environmental conditions do not change within the area so\u00a0it doesn\u2019t matter where within the area you take your samples from.<\/span>\u00a0<span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">Random sampling should be free from bias,\u00a0but it is difficult to obtain a representative sample. The number of samples taken\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\">is important.<\/span><\/li>\n<li><strong>Systematic sampling<\/strong> is used when the study area includes an environmental gradient. You would sample along a line and\u00a0sample points should be evenly spaced or distributed. Systematic sampling is quick and easy to do, but you must be careful not to\u00a0miss variation. The number of samples that you take (the\u00a0sampling size) is important.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Stratified sampling<\/strong> is used when the study area includes significantly different parts or subsets. In an investigation into the\u00a0effect of stream ordering on discharge, a stratified sample would be to choose sites where the two river segments of the same order join. Stratified sampling overcomes the problem with missing variation that might arise with systematic sampling. It is, however, difficult to get background data to allow you to apply stratified sampling appropriately.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Further readings.\u00a0 <em>An Introduction to Scientific Research Methods in Geography<\/em>.\u00a0 2006\u00a0Montello. D. R. and Sutton. P. C. Sage.<\/div>\n<h2>Soil Science Research Methods<\/h2>\n<p>Soil testing is done by taking soil samples from different locations of the soil horizons.\u00a0The soil samples are then taken to a lab for further analysis of the content of moisture, minerals, organic matter and air in the soil.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_202\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-202\" style=\"width: 360px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-202\" alt=\"Figure 1. Soil examined from a scar made by excavator.\" src=\"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci.jpg\" height=\"458\" width=\"360\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci.jpg 360w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci-235x300.jpg 235w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci-65x82.jpg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci-225x286.jpg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/34\/2014\/06\/Soil_sci-350x445.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 360px) 100vw, 360px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-202\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 1. Soil examined from a scar made by excavator.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For further readings and additional activities, check Virtual soil science learning resources and lab (<a href=\"http:\/\/soilweb.landfood.ubc.ca\/promo\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/soilweb.landfood.ubc.ca\/promo\/<\/a> Soil testing methods. <a href=\"http:\/\/soiltest.cfans.umn.edu\/our-methods\/\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/soiltest.cfans.umn.edu\/our-methods<\/a> , and Soil sampling and methods of analysis book. <a href=\"http:\/\/www.planta.cn\/forum\/files_planta\/methods_of_analysis_212.pdf\" target=\"_blank\">http:\/\/www.planta.cn\/forum\/files_planta\/methods_of_analysis_212.pdf <\/a>You can also check out these suggested textbooks; <em>Soil Science And Management<\/em>. 2008. Plaster. E., Delmar Publishers Inc. and <em>Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils<\/em>. 2009. Brady. N. C. and Weil. R. R. Pearson.<\/div>\n<h2>Hydrology\u00a0Research Methods<\/h2>\n<p>Hydrology is the study of the movement, distribution and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of earth or environmental science, physical geography, geology or civil and environmental engineering. Hydrogogy research makes extensive use of modelling to create conceptual representations of the different parts of the hydrologic cycle.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For more information on hydrology and the types of models used in hydrology, refer to <em>Hydrology: An Introduction<\/em>. 2005. Brutsaert. W., Cambridge University Press,<em>Fundamentals of Hydrology<\/em>. 2008. Davie. T. and Quinn N. Routledge, and <em>Hydrology.<\/em> 2013. Das M. M. and Saikia M. D. PHI Learning Private Limited.<\/div>\n<h2>Climatology<\/h2>\n<p>Climatology is the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time. Weather monitoring stations collect information for decades about temperature; wind velocity and direction; moisture concentration in the air; and precipitation, and indicate a specific climatic condition at a specific part of Earth.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">Suggested textbooks and resources for more information on climatology <em>Climatology.<\/em> 2013. Rohli. R. V. Vega. A. J. Jones &amp; Bartlett Learning, <em>Climatology:<\/em> An Atmospheric Science. 2009. Hidore. J. J. Oliver. J. E. Snow M. Snow R, the <em>Encyclopedia of world climatology<\/em>. 2005. Edited by Oliver. J. E. Springer.<\/div>\n<h2>Statistics in Geography<\/h2>\n<p>Statistical techniques and procedures are applied in all fields of academic research; wherever data are collected and summarized or wherever any numerical information is analyzed or research is conducted, statistics are needed for sound analysis and interpretation of results.<\/p>\n<p>Geographers use statistics in numerous ways:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>To describe and summarize spatial data<\/li>\n<li>To make generalizations concerning complex spatial patterns<\/li>\n<li>To estimate the probability of outcomes for an event at a given location<\/li>\n<li>To use samples of geographic data to infer characteristics for a larger set of geographic data (population)<\/li>\n<li>To determine if the magnitude or frequency of some phenomenon differs from one location to another<\/li>\n<li>To learn whether an actual spatial pattern matches some expected pattern<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">For additional information about statistics methods\u00a0in geography, see <em>Statistical Methods for Geography: A Student&#8217;s Guide<\/em>. 2012. Rogerson. P. A. SAGE Publications Ltd.<\/div>\n<h2>Attributions<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Figure 1.<\/strong> Soil examined from a scar made by excavator. Source: Soil Sci by Paleorthid (<a href=\"http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_sci.jpg\">http:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Soil_sci.jpg<\/a>) is in the public domain<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":37,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"back-matter-type":[26],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-207","back-matter","type-back-matter","status-publish","hentry","back-matter-type-appendix"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter\/207","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/back-matter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/37"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter\/207\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1282,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter\/207\/revisions\/1282"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter\/207\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=207"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"back-matter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/back-matter-type?post=207"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=207"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/geography\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=207"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}