{"id":7564,"date":"2021-06-08T21:56:50","date_gmt":"2021-06-08T21:56:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductorychemistry\/chapter\/phase-transitions-melting-boiling-and-subliming\/"},"modified":"2021-10-04T19:06:08","modified_gmt":"2021-10-04T19:06:08","slug":"phase-transitions-melting-boiling-and-subliming","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/introductorychemistry\/chapter\/phase-transitions-melting-boiling-and-subliming\/","title":{"raw":"Phase Transitions: Melting, Boiling, and Subliming","rendered":"Phase Transitions: Melting, Boiling, and Subliming"},"content":{"raw":"[latexpage]\r\n
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Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

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    \r\n \t
  1. Describe what happens during a phase change.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Calculate the energy change needed for a phase change.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nSubstances can change phase \u2014 often because of a temperature change. At low temperatures, most substances are solid; as the temperature increases, they become liquid; at higher temperatures still, they become gaseous.\r\n\r\nThe process of a solid becoming a liquid is called melting<\/strong> (an older term that you may see sometimes is fusion<\/em>). The opposite process, a liquid becoming a solid, is called solidification<\/strong>. For any pure substance, the temperature at which melting occurs \u2014 known as the melting point <\/strong>\u2014 is a characteristic of that substance. It requires energy for a solid to melt into a liquid. Every pure substance has a certain amount of energy it needs to change from a solid to a liquid. This amount is called the enthalpy of fusion (or heat of fusion)<\/strong>\u00a0of the substance, represented as \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub>. Some \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> values are listed in Table 10.2 \"Enthalpies of Fusion for Various Substances\"; it is assumed that these values are for the melting point of the substance. Note that the unit of \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> is kilojoules per mole, so we need to know the quantity of material to know how much energy is involved. The \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> is always tabulated as a positive number. However, it can be used for both the melting and the solidification processes as long as you keep in mind that melting is always endothermic (so \u0394H<\/em> will be positive), while solidification is always exothermic (so \u0394H<\/em> will be negative).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
    Table 10.2 Enthalpies of Fusion for Various Substances<\/caption>\r\n
    Substance (Melting Point)<\/th>\r\n\u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> (kJ\/mol)<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
    Water (0\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n6.01<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Aluminum (660\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n10.7<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Benzene (5.5\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n9.95<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Ethanol (\u2212114.3\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n5.02<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Mercury (\u221238.8\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n2.29<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n
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    Example 10.4<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

    \r\n\r\nWhat is the energy change when 45.7 g of H2<\/sub>O melt at 0\u00b0C?\r\n\r\nSolution<\/em>\r\n\r\nThe \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> of H2<\/sub>O is 6.01 kJ\/mol. However, our quantity is given in units of grams, not moles, so the first step is to convert grams to moles using the molar mass of H2<\/sub>O, which is 18.0 g\/mol. Then we can use \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> as a conversion factor. Because the substance is melting, the process is endothermic, so the energy change will have a positive sign.\r\n

    [latex]45.7\\text{ g }\\ce{H2O}\\times \\left(\\dfrac{1\\text{ mol }\\ce{H2O}}{18.0\\text{ g }\\ce{H2O}}\\right)\\times \\left(\\dfrac{6.01\\text{ kJ}}{1\\text{ mol }\\ce{H2O}}\\right)=15.3\\text{ kJ}[\/latex]<\/p>\r\nWithout a sign, the number is assumed to be positive.\r\n\r\nTest Yourself<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat is the energy change when 108 g of C6<\/sub>H6<\/sub> freeze at 5.5\u00b0C?\r\n\r\nAnswer<\/em>\r\n\r\n\u221213.8 kJ\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nDuring melting, energy goes exclusively to changing the phase of a substance; it does not go into changing the temperature of a substance. Hence melting is an isothermal<\/strong>\u00a0process because a substance stays at the same temperature. Only when all of a substance is melted does any additional energy go to changing its temperature.\r\n\r\nWhat happens when a solid becomes a liquid? In a solid, individual particles are stuck in place because the intermolecular forces cannot be overcome by the energy of the particles. When more energy is supplied (e.g., by raising the temperature), there comes a point at which the particles have enough energy to move around but not enough energy to separate. This is the liquid phase: particles are still in contact but are able to move around each other. This explains why liquids can assume the shape of their containers: the particles move around and, under the influence of gravity, fill the lowest volume possible (unless the liquid is in a zero-gravity environment \u2014 see Figure 10.16 \"Liquids and Gravity\").\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_602\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"400\"]\"\" Figure 10.16 \"Liquids and Gravity.\" (a) A liquid fills the bottom of its container as it is drawn downward by gravity and the particles slide over each other. (b) A liquid floats in a zero- gravity environment. The particles still slide over each other because they are in the liquid phase, but now there is no gravity to pull them down.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe phase change between a liquid and a gas has some similarities to the phase change between a solid and a liquid. At a certain temperature, the particles in a liquid have enough energy to become a gas. The process of a liquid becoming a gas is called boiling (or vapourization)<\/strong>, while the process of a gas becoming a liquid is called condensation<\/strong>. However, unlike the solid\/liquid conversion process, the liquid\/gas conversion process is noticeably affected by the surrounding pressure on the liquid because gases are strongly affected by pressure. This means that the temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas, the boiling point<\/strong>, can change with surrounding pressure. Therefore, we define the normal boiling point<\/strong>\u00a0as the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas when the surrounding pressure is exactly 1 atm, or 760 torr. Unless otherwise specified, it is assumed that a boiling point is for 1 atm of pressure.\r\n\r\nLike the solid\/liquid phase change, the liquid\/gas phase change involves energy. The amount of energy required to convert a liquid to a gas is called the enthalpy of vaporization<\/strong>\u00a0(or heat of vaporization), represented as \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub>. Some \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> values are listed in Table 10.3 \"Enthalpies of Vaporization for Various Substances\"; it is assumed that these values are for the normal boiling point temperature of the substance, which is also given in the table. The unit for \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> is also kilojoules per mole, so we need to know the quantity of material to know how much energy is involved. The \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> is also always tabulated as a positive number. It can be used for both the boiling and the condensation processes as long as you keep in mind that boiling is always endothermic (so \u0394H<\/em> will be positive), while condensation is always exothermic (so \u0394H<\/em> will be negative).\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n
    Table 10.3 Enthalpies of Vaporization for Various Substances<\/caption>\r\n
    Substance (Normal Boiling Point)<\/th>\r\n\u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> (kJ\/mol)<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n
    Water (100\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n40.68<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Bromine (59.5\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n15.4<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Benzene (80.1\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n30.8<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Ethanol (78.3\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n38.6<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n
    Mercury (357\u00b0C)<\/td>\r\n59.23<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n
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    Example 10.5<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

    \r\n\r\nWhat is the energy change when 66.7 g of Br2<\/sub>(g) condense to a liquid at 59.5\u00b0C?\r\n\r\nSolution<\/em>\r\n\r\nThe \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> of Br2<\/sub> is 15.4 kJ\/mol. Even though this is a condensation process, we can still use the numerical value of \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> as long as we realize that we must take energy out, so the \u0394H<\/em> value will be negative. To determine the magnitude of the energy change, we must first convert the amount of Br2<\/sub> to moles. Then we can use \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub> as a conversion factor.\r\n

    [latex]66.7\\text{ g }\\ce{Br2}\\times \\left(\\dfrac{1\\text{ mol }\\ce{Br2}}{159.8\\text{ g }\\ce{Br2}}\\right)\\times \\left(\\dfrac{15.4\\text{ kJ}}{1\\text{ mol }\\ce{Br2}}\\right)=6.43\\text{ kJ}[\/latex]<\/p>\r\nBecause the process is exothermic, the actual value will be negative: \u0394H<\/em> = \u22126.43 kJ.\r\n\r\nTest Yourself<\/em>\r\n\r\nWhat is the energy change when 822 g of C2<\/sub>H5<\/sub>OH(\u2113) boil at its normal boiling point of 78.3\u00b0C?\r\n\r\nAnswer<\/em>\r\n\r\n689 kJ\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nAs with melting, the energy in boiling goes exclusively to changing the phase of a substance; it does not go into changing the temperature of a substance. So boiling is also an isothermal process. Only when all of a substance has boiled does any additional energy go to changing its temperature.\r\n\r\nWhat happens when a liquid becomes a gas? We have already established that a liquid is composed of particles in contact with each other. When a liquid becomes a gas, the particles separate from each other, with each particle going its own way in space. This is how gases tend to fill their containers. Indeed, in the gas phase most of the volume is empty space; only about one one-thousandth of the volume is actually taken up by matter (see Figure 10.17 \"Liquids and Gases\"). It is this property of gases that explains why they can be compressed, a fact that is considered in Chapter 6 \"Gases\"<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_7562\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]\"\" Figure 10.17 Liquids and Gases. In (a), the particles are a liquid; the particles are in contact but are also able to move around each other. In (b), the particles are a gas, and most of the volume is actually empty space. The particles are not to scale; in reality, the dots representing the particles would be about one one-thousandth the size as depicted.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nUnder some circumstances, the solid phase can transition directly to the gas phase without going through a liquid phase, and a gas can directly become a solid. The solid-to-gas change is called sublimation<\/strong>, while the reverse process is called deposition<\/strong>. Sublimation is isothermal, like the other phase changes. There is a measurable energy change during sublimation; this energy change is called the enthalpy of sublimation<\/strong>, represented as \u0394H<\/em>sub<\/sub>. The relationship between the \u0394H<\/em>sub<\/sub> and the other enthalpy changes is as follows:\r\n

    \u0394H<\/em>sub<\/sub> = \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> +\u00a0\u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub><\/p>\r\nAs such, \u0394H<\/em>sub<\/sub> is not always tabulated because it can be simply calculated from \u0394H<\/em>fus<\/sub> and \u0394H<\/em>vap<\/sub>.\r\n\r\nThere are several common examples of sublimation. A well-known product \u2014 dry ice \u2014 is actually solid CO2<\/sub>. Dry ice is dry because it sublimes, with the solid bypassing the liquid phase and going straight to the gas phase. The sublimation occurs at temperature of \u221277\u00b0C, so it must be handled with caution. If you have ever noticed that ice cubes in a freezer tend to get smaller over time, it is because the solid water is very slowly subliming. \u201cFreezer burn\u201d isn\u2019t actually a burn; it occurs when certain foods, such as meats, slowly lose solid water content because of sublimation. The food is still good but looks unappetizing. Reducing the temperature of a freezer will slow the sublimation of solid water.\r\n\r\nChemical equations can be used to represent a phase change. In such cases, it is crucial to use phase labels on the substances. For example, the chemical equation for the melting of ice to make liquid water is as follows:\r\n

    H2<\/sub>O(s) \u2192\u00a0H2<\/sub>O(\u2113)<\/p>\r\nNo chemical change is taking place; however, a physical change is taking place.\r\n

    Heating Curves<\/h2>\r\nA plot of the temperature versus the amount of heat added is known as a heating curve<\/strong> (see Figure 10.18). These are commonly used to visually show the relationship between phase changes and enthalpy for a given substance.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_604\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"530\"]\"Generic Figure 10.18 \"Generic heating curve diagram.\"[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn Figure 10.18[footnote]Courtesy UC Davis Chemwiki\\CC-BY-NC-SA-3.0[\/footnote], the solid gains kinetic energy and consequently rises in temperature as heat is added. At the melting point, the heat added is used to break the attractive intermolecular forces of the solid instead of increasing kinetic energy, and therefore the temperature remains constant. After all the solid has melted, once again, the heat added goes to increasing the kinetic energy (and temperature) of the liquid molecules until the boiling point. At the boiling point, once again, the heat added is used to break the attractive intermolecular forces instead of supplying kinetic energy, and the temperature remains constant until all liquid has been turned to gas.\r\n
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    Key Takeaways<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

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