Meat Cutting and Processing for Food Service

Crosscut of beef shank

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Bone with tendon attached (left) and muscle removed (right)

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1007 Muscle Fibres (large)

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Backstrap location on lamb rack

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Poster indicating marbling in USDA Beef grades

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pH chart

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Fine-textured meat shown on beef tenderloin

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Coarse-textured meat shown on beef shoulder pot roast

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Cyst in beef short loin

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figure19

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Prescapular gland

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Preformal gland

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Popliteal gland.

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Meat Inspection Regulations, 1990: Stamps

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Carcass with rolled grade stamp

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Yield Measuring

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figure16

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Beef carcass.

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Beef primals and sub-primals

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Beef merchandising guide.

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Veal carcass

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Veal primal and sub-primal cuts

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Veal merchandising chart.

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figure23

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figure24

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figure25

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figure26

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figure27

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figure28

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Segmented frying chicken

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Segmented chicken wing

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Chicken breast whole

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Boneless skinless chicken breast with fillets removed

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A whole chicken leg

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A drumstick

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Chicken thigh with skin and bone

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Skinless, boneless chicken thigh

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B grading

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D Grading

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Pork carcass

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Introduction to Meat Science and Nutrition

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Learning Objectives

Describe the composition and characteristics of meat
Describe the chemical changes associated with slaughter
Describe the aging, blooming, and tenderness factors of meat
Describe diseases associated with meat
Describe the nutritional value of meat
Describe the handling and storage of meat and meat products

Introduction

Meat science and the research and studies conducted both independently and in conjunction with many industry stakeholders over the last 40 years have provided a greater understanding of the relationship between animal-handling techniques prior to harvesting (slaughter) and the quality of the meat produced. As well, improved practices during and after the harvesting of animals, especially in large processing plants, have contributed to progress in the meat industry. These include improvements to refrigeration and storage, aging of meats (mainly beef and lamb carcasses), and transportation. Additionally, the slaughter process itself has changed over time, and now beef and veal animals are usually stunned with a captive bolt gun (with a retractable bolt penetrating the brain), rendering the animals unconscious prior to bleeding. All of these developments have improved the end product, which ultimately ends up at local meat stores and restaurants. However, even today a small amount of product can still be found to be substandard (mainly due to faster processing methods in larger plants). In order to understand some of the factors that can alter the quality of the end product, especially tenderness, colour, flavour, and nutritional value of meat (protein), we must turn to science.

Composition of Meat

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Meat muscle, which is what we eat, is made of [pb_glossary id="588"]fibres[/pb_glossary], bound together with connective tissue, that are mainly linked to other groups of muscles or directly to the animal’s bone structure. Muscle contains 60% to 70% moisture, 10% to 20% protein, 2% to 22% fat, and 1% ash, depending on type and species. On larger bones (such as the shanks of larger animals), it is easy to see the muscle groups in bundles (if cut on the cross-section) surrounded by [pb_glossary id="558"]collagen[/pb_glossary] fibres and a much heavier connective tissue ([pb_glossary id="581"]elastin[/pb_glossary]) that forms a thin covering (called [pb_glossary id="668"]silverskin[/pb_glossary]) separating muscle groups or a [pb_glossary id="681"]tendon[/pb_glossary] at the ends of the muscle group (Figure 1). The tendon is attached to the bone at or near a bone joint (Figure 2). [caption id="attachment_23" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 1. Crosscut of beef shank showing muscle fibres.[/caption] [caption id="attachment_24" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 2. Bone with tendon attached (left) and muscle removed (right).[/caption] The muscle fibres are known as [pb_glossary id="629"]myofibrils[/pb_glossary], which are composed of thick and thin filaments arranged in a repeating pattern alongside the other myofibrils (Figure 3). One unit of a bundle is called a [pb_glossary id="664"]sarcomere[/pb_glossary], or little muscle. The thick filaments are the contractile protein [pb_glossary id="631"]myosin[/pb_glossary]. The thin filaments, known as [pb_glossary id="525"]actin[/pb_glossary], contain two other proteins called [pb_glossary id="687"]troponin[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="686"]tropomyosin[/pb_glossary] that help regulate muscle contraction. [caption id="attachment_25" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 3. 1007 Muscle Fibres (large) by OpenStax College - Anatomy & Physiology, Connexions Website. June 19, 2013. Licensed under CC BY 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons[/caption] The amount of connective tissue in meats and its [pb_glossary id="670"]solubility[/pb_glossary] (the degree to which it is dissolved during the cooking process) can directly influence the tenderness of meat muscle. For example, as an animal ages, it has more connective tissue and therefore experiences [pb_glossary id="565"]cross-linking[/pb_glossary], an increase in connective tissue that becomes highly insoluble. This is why older animals are usually tougher and younger animals are more tender. The most tender cuts from a beef animal, such as tenderloin, strip loin, and top sirloin from the beef hind quarter, can be prepared using a [pb_glossary id="578"]dry heat cooking method[/pb_glossary]. In contrast, tougher cuts from the front quarter of beef that have more collagen connective tissue, such as the blade, shoulder, and shank, require a [pb_glossary id="626"]moist heat[/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id="559"]combination cooking method[/pb_glossary], which breaks down collagen into a [pb_glossary id="599"]gelatin[/pb_glossary] form when cooked in water at temperatures of over 80°C (176°F). The collagen dissolves in the water, which is why stocks made from animal bones and connective tissue have body and thicken when cooled. (We discuss cooking potential and tenderness in more detail later in the book.) Heavy collagen, such as tendons at the ends of muscle groups and the protein elastin, does not break down under this cooking process and is therefore insoluble in water. In addition to silverskin and tendons, there is a specific piece of heavy collagen (also known as the [pb_glossary id="535"]backstrap[/pb_glossary]) that is yellow in colour and located along the upper backbone from the base of the skull to the end of the rib cage in all meat animals (Figure 4). [caption id="attachment_26" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 4. Backstrap location on lamb rack.[/caption] Fats are deposited all over certain parts of the animal and contribute to the shelf life, flavour, and colour of dry aged meats. Fat in beef meat muscle is called intramuscular fat and appears as a pattern of wavy lines, commonly known as marbling (Figure 5). [caption id="attachment_703" align="aligncenter" width="400"] Figure 5. Poster indicating marbling in USDA Beef grades. [image description][/caption]Well-marbled meat usually indicates that the cooked meat will be juicy and tender, and the amount of marbling is a factor that is used to determine the grade of beef, specifically for the A grades. Beef grading is discussed in detail later in the book.

Image descriptions

Figure 5. Poster indicating marbling in USDA Beef grades. A guide to understanding the fat content of USDA grades of beef.

USDA Prime: More marbling—or fine threads of fat—in USDA Prime beef result in more flavor, moisture and tenderness. Marbling also helps keep beef moist during cooking, making USDA Prime ideal for broiling, roasting, grilling and other high-heat methods. Some cuts. like tenderloin (filet) crd top uade (flat iron). cre often tender regardless of how much marbling they have.
USDA Choice: USDA Choice beef has less marbling than Prime, but still retains enough fat to stay moist through most high-heat cooking methods like braising, roasting or grilling.
USDA Select: Beef with less marbling, like USDA Select, should be cooked slowly. Using marinades or moist heat methods like steaming or stewing will help ensure flavor & tenderness.

Return to Figure 5

Chemical Changes Associated with Slaughter

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Prior to harvesting (slaughter), animals are vulnerable to stresses that can and do alter their [pb_glossary id="639"]pH (potential hydrogen)[/pb_glossary]. pH is measured on a scale of 0 to 14 (Figure 6).

pH above 7 = alkaline
pH of 7 = neutral
pH below 7 = acid

[caption id="attachment_30" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 6. Potential Hydrogen, pH Chart[/caption] These changes are most likely to occur with cattle (beef cattle in particular) and pigs, and can cause discolouration that is visible in the finished product. Therefore, it is important to understand how these changes occur and how they may affect product presentation, colour, and flavour. The amount of stress animals suffer depends on how they are handled before harvesting. For example, when animals are selected for harvesting, they may be separated from the herd, rested overnight, then loaded on a truck to be driven to the harvesting plant. Sometimes the animals have to be transported vast distances, especially in Canada. Once unloaded at the plant, they are rested, hopefully with the same group of animals they have been transported with. All these sudden changes are stressful to the animals, and each step of the process must be carefully handled. Excessive heat, dehydration, cramped conditions, and strange surroundings have a negative effect on most animals, with some finding the process more arduous than others. At the time of slaughter, animals are moved from their holding pens into a specially designed S-shaped approach chute that helps to keep the animals calm. This then leads the animal into a tight holding box where it is stunned, bled, then winched up for skinning, eviscerating, splitting, and washing followed by rapid cooling in a special holding cooler. Example: Grandin Livestock Handling System The key to minimizing stress is to handle the animals as quickly and gently as possible to ensure that their pH remains stable prior to death—around 6.5 (neutral) and dropping to about 5.6 to 5.2 [pb_glossary id="642"]post mortem[/pb_glossary] (after death) during the first 24 hours of cooling, when the carcass temperature is forced down to 4°C (40°F). All the factors outlined above have some effect on the animal’s pH. As the animal ceases to breathe, and as blood leaves the animal with the heart still pumping, about 50% of the blood is removed. It takes about four to six minutes before the heart ceases to beat. As the pH begins to drop below 6.5, [pb_glossary id="614"]lactic acid[/pb_glossary] is produced, increasing the [pb_glossary id="524"]acidity[/pb_glossary]. Lactic acid serves as a preservative, lessening deterioration of the carcass until the temperature of the muscles reaches 4°C (40°F). At this point, [pb_glossary id="657"]rigor mortis[/pb_glossary] (the stiffening of the muscles in death) begins to set in. This usually takes between 12 and 24 hours depending on the size of the carcass and amount of exterior fat covering. There are three stages to rigor mortis:

[pb_glossary id="646"]Pre-rigor[/pb_glossary]: The muscle fibres begin to shorten due to the depletion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), causing the muscles to become less extendable while hanging under load. With less oxygen available, the myosin and actin proteins form actomyosin after death occurs. The actomyosin produces a [pb_glossary id="563"]cross bridge[/pb_glossary] between the actin and myosin filaments. In the living animal, these cross bridges are broken during the relaxation phase of a normal contraction cycle (e.g., movement such as walking). However, after death (post mortem), cross bridges are formed permanently as the muscles shorten.
[pb_glossary id="656"]Rigor maximum[/pb_glossary]: The muscle fibres reach maximum shortening, resulting in stiff muscles. The cross bridges are now firmly in place.
[pb_glossary id="658"]Rigor resolution[/pb_glossary]: The now stiff muscle fibres begin to extend again and stretch out to almost their original length. As this extension occurs, the cross bridges create a tearing effect. This phase results in [pb_glossary id="680"]tenderization[/pb_glossary] during [pb_glossary id="577"]dry aging[/pb_glossary] (hanging) or [pb_glossary id="695"]wet aging[/pb_glossary] (storing in [pb_glossary id="690"]vacuum packaging[/pb_glossary]) of carcass meat and is most noticeable in prime meat cuts from the short loin, sirloin, and 7-bone rib (prime rib) of beef. Another chemical process develops during this phase in which the still-living cells begin to produce lactic acid. Lactic acid is normally removed by the circulatory system of living animals; however, in rigor resolution it remains in the muscles, causing the pH to drop until the core temperature of the carcass reaches 4°C (40°F).

Rigor mortis takes different times to activate depending on the size of the animal and, in some cases, the species (Table 1).

Table 1- Length of time required for rigor mortis to activate
Species	Time for Rigor Mortis to Activate
Beef	6 to 12 hours
Lamb	6 to 12 hours
Pork	15 minutes to 3 hours
Turkey	Less than 1 hour
Chicken	Less than half an hour
Fish	Less than 1 hour

To further understand the three stages of rigor mortis in relation to meat tenderness, consider the following example: A beef animal has endured a stressful separation from its home farm and a prolonged road trip to the harvesting plant. During the trip, the animal became very dehydrated, thus arriving at the plant in a weakened and agitated state, and could not be settled down prior to slaughter. In this example, the animal’s pH could be above 7 (neutral) into the alkaline part of the pH scale (8-14) before harvest. This could cause the carcass (post mortem) to never reach rigor resolution, remaining in the rigor maximum stage, where the muscle fibres are at maximum stiffness. Therefore, the carcass would remain tough even after the normal dry or wet aging process.

Aging of Meat Carcasses

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The overall time for dry aging carcass meats is dictated by the quality and performance of the refrigeration used, the overall condition and handling of the carcass at the time of harvesting, and the hygiene standards of the harvesting plant. For example, while stored at 1°C (33°F), the following species would take varying amounts of time to reach approximately 80% of maximum tenderness:

Beef: 9 to 14 days
Lamb: 7 to 14 days
Pork: 4 to 10 days

Note: Wet-aged (vacuum-packaged) beef can be aged much longer (up to 30 days). Lamb and pork can also be stored longer as a wet-aged product but not quite as long as beef.

Toughness and Age

Both the age of the animal at the time of processing and the post mortem aging affect its toughness. Toughness can be divided into two types:

[pb_glossary id="534"]Background toughness[/pb_glossary]: More cross links are found in older animals, making the meat tougher. Cross links refer to elastin and collagen rings that hold muscle fibres in place. As animals age, more elastin rings are formed. Also, the more exercised muscles of the animal, such as shanks and shoulders, have more elastin rings regardless of age.
[pb_glossary id="526"]Actomyosin or myofibril toughness[/pb_glossary]: This toughness is caused by the overlap of thick and thin muscle filaments.

Post mortem aging at the resolution stage of rigor mortis helps eliminate actomyosin toughness, but not background toughness. Table 2 shows the ideal age of animals for processing different types of meat. Animals processed older than the age indicated will have increased levels of background toughness.

Table 2 Approximate processing ages of different animals
Meat type	Approximate age of animal at processing
Beef	1.5 to 2.5 years
Veal	Less than 1 year
Baby veal	3 to 6 months
Pork	6 months
Lamb	3 to 11 months
Poultry	3 to 6 weeks

Use of Electrical Stimulation to Speed Up the Aging Process

[pb_glossary id="582"]Electrical stimulation (ES)[/pb_glossary] is a method of accelerating the normal decline of pH onset post mortem. In Canada, it is used mainly on lamb carcasses to enhance the tenderization process and protect from [pb_glossary id="557"]cold shortening[/pb_glossary]. Cold shortening can occur with smaller carcasses and refers to cooling too rapidly, preventing the rigor resolution stage to be reached. ES is used to kick-start the rigor maximum stage to reach the rigor resolution stage, which improves meat tenderness and maintains the bright red colour and muscle firmness. The standard voltage for ES is 504 volts at 3 amps. If used immediately after stunning, ES can be applied at lower voltage. However, higher voltage is more effective. If ES is delayed for one hour after stunning, a massive 1,600 volts is required to kick-start the process.

Meat Fibres and Tenderness Factors

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Under cross-sectional inspection, muscles from different parts of the animal's body display bundles of fibres that appear as irregularly shaped polygons. The bundle size and thickness of the [pb_glossary id="560"]connective tissue septa[/pb_glossary] determine the texture of the muscles: those with small bundles and thin septa have a fine texture, and those muscles with larger bundles and more connective tissue with thick septa have a coarser texture. The finer the texture the more precision of movement from the muscle, such as tenderloin (Figure 7). The coarse-textured muscles, such as shanks and shoulders (Figure 8), are the heavy working muscles of the body that support the full weight of the animal and therefore require less precision of movement. [caption id="attachment_35" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 7 Fine-textured meat shown on beef tenderloin.[/caption] [caption id="attachment_36" align="aligncenter" width="335"] Figure 8 Coarse-textured meat shown on beef shoulder pot roast. [/caption] Science can help explain why some muscles on a beef animal are more tender than others. There are actually three types of skeletal muscle, known as [pb_glossary id="688"]twitch fibres[/pb_glossary], with differing speeds of movement and with different colours:

Fast glycolytic (white): These are fast twitch fibres; they are found in skeletal muscle, such as shanks, shoulders, and hips, and are known as “voluntary muscles.” They require no oxygen and they move faster.
Fast oxidative (red): These are slow twitch fibres; they are found in the diaphragm, heart, arteries, and veins, and are known as “involuntary muscles.” They require oxygen to operate and they move slowly.
Slow oxidative (red/white intermediate): These are slow/fast twitch fibres; they are found in precision muscles, such as the tenderloin and strip loin, that don’t need to move as fast as skeletal muscles.

Meat Colour

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The post mortem colour development of meat varies greatly from one species to another, with variations in fresh beef being very prominent. Beef shows a range of colour from first being cut to the end of its shelf life (about three days). Typical meat colour for different species is shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Typical colour of meat from different species
Species	Colour
Beef	Bright cherry red
Fish	Pure white to grey-white or pink to dark red
Horse	Dark red
Lamb and mutton	Light red to brick red
Pork	Greyish pink
Poultry	Grey-white to dull red
Veal	Brownish pink

Meat colour is significant to consumer acceptance of products. The bright red colour of good quality beef, sockeye salmon, and young lamb are naturally appealing, whereas the paler colours of veal and other fish species are less appealing to many (although more sought after by some ethnic groups). Dark meats such as horse are more popular in Quebec and European countries. Mutton (sheep over 12 months of age with darker flesh) appeals to an even smaller range of customers.

Factors Affecting Colour

Use of Muscles

Poultry provides a good opportunity to see and learn about the differences in meat colour. Meat cutters and cooks may often be asked why different parts of a chicken have [pb_glossary id="696"]white meat[/pb_glossary] and other parts have [pb_glossary id="571"]dark meat[/pb_glossary], or why duck or game birds have mostly dark meat. The colour of the meat is determined by how the muscle is used. Upland game birds, such as [pb_glossary id="637"]partridge[/pb_glossary] and grouse, that fly only for short bursts have white breast meat. In contrast, ducks and geese and most other game birds that fly long distances have exclusively dark meat. In domestic poultry (chickens and turkeys), there is a difference between breasts (white meat) and thighs and drumsticks (dark meat). Note: Chicken thighs, even when fully cooked, may have a reddish tinge and blood seepage from the thigh bone. This is normal; however, inexperienced customers may interpret this as a sign of not being cooked properly.

Proteins

Meat colour is associated with two proteins: [pb_glossary id="630"]myoglobin[/pb_glossary] (in the muscle) and [pb_glossary id="609"]hemoglobin[/pb_glossary] (in the blood). When animals are no longer alive and air comes in contact with the meat, myoglobin reacts with oxygen in an attempt to reach a state of equilibrium, at which point no further changes occur. As this process happens, the meat colour goes through three stages and three colours that are easy to see, especially on freshly cut beef meats.

Purplish red (myoglobin): occurs immediately after a [pb_glossary id="674"]steak[/pb_glossary] is sliced.
Cherry red (oxymyoglobin): occurs several minutes after cutting and after exposure to oxygen.
Brown (metmyoglobin): occurs when the iron in the myoglobin is oxidized, which usually takes about three days after cutting. (You may see steaks with this colour in the discount bin at a supermarket. The brown colour doesn’t mean there is anything wrong with the product; in fact, purchasing meat at this stage is a great way to stock up on cheaper steaks for the freezer.)

Oxygen

Oxygen plays two important roles, which affect the colour in opposite ways. As soon as meat is cut, oxygen reacts with the myoglobin and creates the bright red colour associated with oxymyoglobin. This will continue to develop until the iron in the myoglobin oxidizes to the point of the [pb_glossary id="624"]metmyoglobin[/pb_glossary] stage. Oxidation can also occur when iron in the meat binds with oxygen in the muscle. This can often occur during the processing of round steak from the hip primal and can be identified by the rainbow-like colours that appear from the reflection of light off the meat surface. The condition will remain after the product is cooked and can often be seen on sliced roast beef used in sandwich making. This condition does not alter the quality of the meat; however, it is generally less attractive to consumers.

Age

The pale muscles of veal carcasses indicate an immature animal, which has a lower myoglobin count than those of more mature animals. Young cattle are fed primarily milk products to keep their flesh light in colour. However once a calf is weaned and begins to eat grass, its flesh begins to darken. Intact males such as breeding bulls have muscle that contains more myoglobin than females (heifers) or steers (castrated males) at a comparable age. Generally, beef and lamb have more myoglobin in their muscles than pork, veal, fish, and poultry. Game animals have muscles that are darker than those of domestic animals, in part due to the higher level of physical activity, and therefore they also have higher myoglobin.

Preventing Discolouration

Maintaining the temperature of fresh meat near the freezing point (0°C/32°F) helps maintain the bright red colour ([pb_glossary id="540"]bloom[/pb_glossary]) of beef meats for much longer and prevents discolouration. Meat should be allowed to bloom completely (the bloom usually reaches its peak about three or four days after cutting) or be wrapped on a meat tray with a [pb_glossary id="638"]permeable[/pb_glossary] wrapping film as in supermarket meat displays. If portioned steaks are to be vacuum packed, doing so immediately after cutting (but before the bloom has started) will allow the steaks to bloom naturally when removed from the vacuum packaging. Certain phases of meat processing can also trigger discolouration. Oxidation browning (metmyoglobin) can develop more rapidly than normal if something occurs to restrict the flow of oxygen once the bloom has started but has not been allowed to run its full course. The two most common examples are:

Cut meat surfaces stay in contact too long with flat surfaces such as cutting tables, cutting boards, or trays.
Meat is wrapped in paper (which means there is no further exposure to air and therefore no oxygen, which speeds up the browning effect).

The browning effect will occur naturally once the meat is exposed to oxygen. There are two other types of discolouration that commonly occur with beef and pig meat. Although the cause of both types occurs before death ([pb_glossary id="532"]ante mortem[/pb_glossary]), the actual change does not show up until after death (post mortem). The discolouration is a result of chemical reactions in the animal’s body due to stresses, known as [pb_glossary id="648"]pre-slaughter stress syndrome (PSS)[/pb_glossary]. PSS can result in two different types of discolouration: PSE and DFD. [pb_glossary id="651"]PSE[/pb_glossary] (pale, soft, and exudative) occurs mainly in pigs (and in some cases has been found to be genetic). PSE is brought about by a sudden increase of lactic acid due to the depletion of glycogen before slaughter, which in turn causes a rapid decline in the pH post slaughter. The visible signs of PSE can be detected by the trained eye in the pork loin primal, where the flesh appears much paler than normal. The muscle meat is softer and may be very sloppy and wet to the touch and leaking meat juices, a result of a high proportion of free water in the tissues. Although product with PSE is safe to eat, its shelf life is limited and it may become tougher sooner if overcooked. Products with PSE have limited use as fresh products but are used to manufacture cooked products such as formed ham and certain sausage varieties with a recommended limit of 10% (i.e., one part PSE to nine parts of regular meat), due to the high water content. [pb_glossary id="574"]DFD[/pb_glossary] (dark, firm, and dry) occurs mainly in beef carcasses but sometimes in lamb and turkey. In the meat industry, these carcasses are referred to as [pb_glossary id="570"]dark cutters[/pb_glossary]. Unlike PSE meat, DFD meat shows little or no drop in the pH after slaughter. Instead, there may be an increase of stress hormones, such as [pb_glossary id="527"]adrenaline[/pb_glossary], released into the bloodstream. Consequently, [pb_glossary id="604"]glycogen[/pb_glossary] (muscle sugar) is depleted before slaughter due to stresses. This decreases the lactic acid, which in turn affects the pH, causing it to not drop fast enough after slaughter. Therefore, the muscle meat, typically in the hip area of the carcass, may become very dry and dark. Even after the carcass is aged and the meat has been processed and displayed, the dark appearance remains and bloom will not occur. In addition, the meat may also feel sticky to the touch, which limits shelf life. DFD meat is generally considered unattractive to the consumer; however, the meat remains edible and is still suitable for use in cooked products and sausage emulsions but should be limited to 10% (one part DFD to nine parts of regular meat). Listed below are some causes of DFD that should be avoided:

Transferring animals to strange surroundings (kill plant) and holding them for too long
Treating animals roughly prior to and during transport (e.g., using cattle prods)
Overcrowding cattle during shipping
Mixing cattle with other animals they are not used to
Preventing animals from having sufficient rest at the slaughterhouse prior to harvesting
Dehydrating animals (not giving them enough water) prior to slaughter
Causing over-excitement, pain, hunger, excessive noise, smell of blood
Exposing animals to temperature extremes during transportation
Shipping stress-susceptible animals, such as intact males (bulls), during severe weather

Note: DFD can occur anywhere between 12 and 48 hours prior to an animal’s slaughter.

Imperfections and Abnormalities in Meat

Even though meats arriving at their final destination (point of sale) have usually been approved and inspected, the product still requires further checks prior to sale and eating in case abnormal meat inconsistencies were missed in the inspection process. Some of these are caused by injuries or disease that occurred while the animal was alive, while others are naturally occurring parts of the animal’s body (glands in particular) that are removed prior to or during the cutting process. Some examples are given here.

[pb_glossary id="523"]Abscesses[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="568"]cysts[/pb_glossary]: infected or non-infected tumours from old injuries that are imbedded in muscles and sometimes close to bones (Figure 9).

[caption id="attachment_40" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 9. Cyst in beef short loin. [/caption]

[pb_glossary id="539"]Blood spots and clots[/pb_glossary]: usually from more recent injuries and also found imbedded in muscles or between muscle seams or on or near bone joints.
[pb_glossary id="589"]Fibrous tissue[/pb_glossary]: scar tissue, usually from very old injuries, with the appearance of white fatty seams or thin strands tightly bound together, making the muscle tough and unsightly.
[pb_glossary id="619"]Lymph nodes[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="602"]glands[/pb_glossary]: lymph nodes are glands in the throat and back of the tongue that give a good indication of the general health of the animal; these are inspected on the animal carcass at the harvesting plant prior to being sold, but internal or intermuscular glands are not examined unless further inspection is recommended by a veterinarian. Consequently, three major glands are removed from beef, pork, and lamb during processing to ensure the public do not see them. They are the [pb_glossary id="647"]prescapular gland[/pb_glossary], located in the neck and blade sub-primals below the junction of the fifth cervical vertebra (Figure 10); the [pb_glossary id="645"]prefemoral gland[/pb_glossary], located at 90 degrees to the round bone on the hip on the exterior of the sirloin tip imbedded in the cod fat pocket (Figure 11); and the [pb_glossary id="641"]popliteal gland[/pb_glossary], located in the outside round sub-primal in the hip primal between the eye of the round and the outside round flat under the heel of round, imbedded in a fat pocket (Figure 12).

[caption id="attachment_42" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 10. Prescapular gland.[/caption] [caption id="attachment_43" align="aligncenter" width="436"] Figure 11. Prefemoral gland. [/caption] [caption id="attachment_44" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 12. Popliteal gland. [/caption]

Diseases Associated with Meat

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:22:50 +0000

There are several diseases well known to both the industry and the general public that are directly related to all the domestic meat species of beef, pork, lamb, and poultry. These include:

[pb_glossary id="580"]E. coli[/pb_glossary] from ground beef
[pb_glossary id="544"]BSE (bovine spongiform encephalitis)[/pb_glossary] from beef cattle
[pb_glossary id="683"]Trichinosis[/pb_glossary] from pork
[pb_glossary id="662"]Salmonella[/pb_glossary] from poultry
[pb_glossary id="666"]Scrapie[/pb_glossary] from lamb and mutton

In addition, the meat and food industry are vulnerable to a variety of other infectious diseases that can manifest in food processing areas due mainly to poor personal hygiene and processing sanitation practices, which in turn can develop the growth of [pb_glossary id="536"]bacteria[/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id="693"]viruses[/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id="627"]moulds[/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id="697"]yeasts[/pb_glossary].These can then set the stage for:

[pb_glossary id="592"]Foodborne infection[/pb_glossary], such as salmonella or trichinosis, caused by ingesting food that is contaminated with bacteria, parasites, and viruses
[pb_glossary id="593"]Foodborne intoxication[/pb_glossary], either bacterial, such as E. coli, or chemical, where food has been contaminated with toxic chemicals, such as cleaning compounds or pesticides

Two particularly dangerous foodborne bacteria that can cause serious illness require special attention:

[pb_glossary id="554"]Clostridium botulinum[/pb_glossary], which can develop in vacuum-packaged and canned foods
[pb_glossary id="616"]Listeria monocytogenes[/pb_glossary], which occurs due to poor cleaning of machines, dirty floors, and drains

Following is a brief overview of the major risks – in terms of bacteria and illnesses – associated with meat and the meat industry. Some of the bacteria are known to originate from meat; others can and do develop in food processing areas through unhygienic practices. [pb_glossary id="544"]BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy)[/pb_glossary]: commonly known as mad cow disease, a fatal brain-degenerative disease (encephalopathy) in cattle that causes a spongy degeneration in the brain and spinal cord. BSE has a long incubation period, about two-and-a-half to eight years, usually affecting adult cattle at a peak age onset of four to five years. All breeds are equally susceptible. The disease can be easily transmitted to humans who eat food contaminated by the brain, spinal cord, or digestive tract of infected carcasses. In humans, it is known as the variant [pb_glossary id="562"]Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease[/pb_glossary], and as of June 2014 it had killed 177 people in the United Kingdom and 52 elsewhere. Controls on high-risk offal (internal organs) were introduced in 1989. The cause was cattle, which are normally herbivores, being fed the remains of other cattle in the form of meat and bone meal (MBM), which caused the infectious agent to spread. Outbreaks of BSE in Canada severely crippled Canadian beef exports, which have only recently been restored. Under Canadian law, it is now illegal to feed cattle MBM. The [pb_glossary id="545"]Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)[/pb_glossary] strictly controls the slaughter of all beef animals over the age of 30 months. Safeguards:

Due to the severity of the disease, the following prevention measures have been implemented at the harvesting point, which has eliminated any possible transmission of the disease to the public. All possible infected parts of these animals are removed at the harvesting plant, kept separate from all other animal waste, and destroyed to safeguard the food supply. The parts removed include the skull, tonsils, a thick slice of the central backbone including the spinal column from the base of the skull to the pelvis, and two sections of the small intestines.

[pb_glossary id="554"]Clostridium botulinum[/pb_glossary]: an [pb_glossary id="531"]anaerobic[/pb_glossary] microorganism (it grows without air) which forms spores that exist over a wide range of temperatures. The organism itself does not cause illness, but the toxin it produces is one of the most deadly known to humankind. The spores can survive in frozen, raw, and precooked food. Although it is not a frequent cause of illness, it is considered the most serious to deal with in the food industry. This nasty organism is found in the intestines of humans and animals and in soil and streams. The major source of botulinum is swollen and damaged canned products and/or air-tight packages such as vacuum-sealed products with low acid foods such as beans, fish, and meats. Safeguards:

Understand that the spores of the organism are very heat resistant and can survive boiling temperatures.
During any food packaging process, ensure product is heated to a core temperature of 82°C (180°F) for 20 minutes to kill any toxins.

[pb_glossary id="556"]Clostridium perfringens[/pb_glossary]: an anaerobic organism that produces heat-resistant spores. It also grows in the [pb_glossary id="569"]danger zone[/pb_glossary] of 4°C to 60°C (40°F to 140°F) and may double in numbers in 10 minutes. This bacterium is found in intestinal tracts of humans and animals, in sewage, and in manure, and it is considered widespread. Insects and rodents can also become contaminated. Unwashed hands and dirty clothing are major sources and carriers of the disease. The main food sources affected by C. perfringens are foods high in proteins such as fresh meat of all types, deli items, and cooked meats like stews and gravies that have cooled too slowly. Safeguards:

Only proper hot holding of cooked foods (above 60°C or 140°F) or rapid cooling in shallow trays to below 4°C (40°F) can prevent this disease from taking hold.
Heat product above 74°C (165°F) to kill most non-heat-resistant strains.

coli: A bacterium found naturally in the intestines of humans or other animals. The strain common to the meat and food industry is E. coli 0157:H7. E. coli does not cause a disease and is not considered parasitic because its source of food is the body waste in the intestinal tract. However, should E. coli gain access to the kidneys, bladder, or other internal organs, it can become parasitic and produce infections that can turn fatal. E. coli outbreaks associated with domestic animals (mainly beef) have strained the meat industry when it has been discovered in ground meat supplies. In addition, E. coli has occurred in milk, cheese, and related foods as well as in plants and plant products irrigated with contaminated groundwater supplies. Safeguards:

Understand that E. coli cannot be destroyed by freezing.
Cook products such as ground meat to a core temperature of 71°C (160°F) to kill E. coli.
Follow and enforce good personal hygiene (hand washing) after using the toilet.
Follow industry safeguards to prevent contamination during the harvesting of animals, especially during the removal of the hide, which is often covered in fecal matter. (One large harvesting plant in Alberta has a state-of-the-art hide wash to help eliminate contamination prior to removal of the hide.)
Take the preventive measure, which should now be a common practice, of carefully trimming meat surfaces on sub-primals that are near the [pb_glossary id="529"]aitch bone[/pb_glossary] portion of the pelvis and anal canal. These areas are located on the hip and sirloin, especially on the hindquarters of beef carcasses and pork and lamb legs.

[pb_glossary id="616"]Listeria monocytogenes[/pb_glossary]: Listeria is commonly found in soil, stream water, sewage, plants, foods made from milk, and processed foods such as hot dogs and deli meats. It can also be found in uncooked meat and vegetables and fruit such as apples and cantaloupes. Animals can also be carriers. Contamination may occur after cooking and before packaging. Listeria is responsible for listeriosis, a rare but potentially lethal foodborne infection. Listeria can grow in temperatures from 4°C to 37°C (40°F to 96°F), which is human body temperature. The bacterium is known to cause meningitis, a potentially fatal disease. Safeguards:

Implement thorough cleaning practices especially for equipment used to slice or needle meats (tenderize). This includes fully disassembling equipment, then scrubbing, rinsing, sanitizing, and air drying.
Keep all floors and drains thoroughly cleaned; these areas are often overlooked and are known to be breeding grounds for listeria.
Institute a deep-cleaning plan for any processing area as part of a sanitation program. This involves committing to extensive cleaning of the whole work area several times throughout the working year, including cleaning floors, walls, and drains and the complete disassembly of all equipment.

[pb_glossary id="666"]Scrapie[/pb_glossary]: a fatal disease that affects the central nervous system of sheep and goats. Scrapie is a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). It is similar to BSE, but it is not caused by the animal's feed. While the exact cause of scrapie is still unknown, the disease is associated with the presence of an abnormal form of a protein called a prion. According to Health Canada, there is no known link between scrapie and human health. However, the CFIA does have a control program in place. The disease seems to present itself differently in different countries. Wasting and debility (weakness) appear to be more prominent clinical features in North America, while pruritus (intense itching) remains the most noted clinical feature in Europe. Scrapie is spread from an infected female to her offspring at birth, or to other animals exposed to the birth environment, through fluid and tissue from the placenta. Safeguards:

Scrapie is not known to be transmissible to humans, so any measures in place are to safeguard the health of sheep stocks.

[pb_glossary id="662"]Salmonella[/pb_glossary]: Foodborne bacteria with 1,300 types known. One of the most severe infections caused by salmonella is [pb_glossary id="689"]typhoid fever[/pb_glossary]. The main sources and carriers of salmonella in the food industry are most poultry, eggs and cracked eggs, shellfish, raw milk, and service workers with unwashed hands. People and animals may be carriers without showing any symptoms. Safeguards:

Cook products to an internal temperature over 60°C (140°F) for 12 minutes to kill salmonella.

[pb_glossary id="673"]Staphylococcus[/pb_glossary]: an [pb_glossary id="528"]aerobic[/pb_glossary] organism (needs air to grow) that causes food poisoning by releasing toxins into food. It does not form spores. However, it may survive for months in the soil and in a frozen state in food. The most common carrier is the human body, particularly through skin abrasions, wounds, infected sinuses, pimples, etc. Raw poultry is also known to be a carrier. Food poisoning usually occurs when already cooked or easy-to-eat food is re-contaminated with staphylococcus. In the food service industry, susceptible products are those high in protein, such as custards, cream-filled bakery goods, sauces, meat and meat products (especially chopped meats), chicken salads, and cheeses. Staphylococcus can grow to enormous numbers on meat without producing changes in colour, odour, or taste if the infected product has not been stored in the safe temperature zones below 4°C (40°F) or above 60°C (140°F). Safeguards:

Wash hands frequently, especially after using the toilet and when coughing and sneezing.
Always keep foods stored in the safe temperature zones below 4°C (40°F) or above 60°C (140°F).

[pb_glossary id="683"]Trichinosis[/pb_glossary]: a disease caused by Trichinella (parasitic nematodes, intestinal worms, and roundworms) that initially enter the body when meat containing the Trichinella cysts (roundworm larvae) is eaten. For humans, undercooked or raw pork and raw dry cured pork products, such as pork salami, have been most commonly responsible for transmitting the Trichinella parasites. Trichinosis is a foodborne infection and is not contagious from one human to another unless infected human muscle is eaten. However, almost all carnivores (meat eaters) or omnivores (meat and plant eaters), such as bears, can both become infected and, if eaten, can transmit the disease to other carnivores and omnivores. For example, undercooked or raw bear meat can contain living Trichinella cysts. Therefore, if humans, dogs, pigs, rats, or mice eat the meat, they can become infected. In rare instances, larvae in cattle feed can infect cattle. There are six species that are known to infect humans. Today, trichinosis has been virtually eradicated in Canada due to well-managed controls in the Canadian hog industry. Note: Commercially raised pork in Canada is at low risk of this disease, and it is common now for pork to be cooked to medium instead of well done. Doing so is safe provided the core temperature of 60°C (140°F) is held for at least one minute. Pork can also be cooked as low as a core temperature of 54.4°C (130°F) and held at that temperature for 30 minutes. Safeguards:

Eliminate the risk of infection through proper cooking of meat.
Cook all wild game meat, pork, and horse meat to an internal temperature of at least 71°C (160°F).
Understand that [pb_glossary id="566"]curing[/pb_glossary] (salting), drying, smoking, or microwaving the meat does not consistently kill infective larvae.

Human-Introduced Residues in Meat

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:30:57 +0000

The two major residues that are or have been used by the meat industry are both well documented and controversial because they are used to manipulate growth and development in animals. These residues are 1) [pb_glossary id="676"]sub-therapeutic hormones[/pb_glossary] that produce more lean muscle and less fat and 2) [pb_glossary id="533"]antibiotics[/pb_glossary] used to maintain the health of the animals in mass-production operations. Today the addition of these residues is strictly controlled and monitored by the government. Health Canada sets the standards for levels of hormones and antibiotics that can be left in food, and regulates the use of hormones and antibiotics in Canada so that they do not pose a risk to the public. The CFIA is responsible for the monitoring and testing of food products to ensure that they meet the regulatory requirements.

Hormones

It is important to note that there are naturally occurring hormones in all animals and plants, so when people discuss the use of hormones in food, they are referring to the addition of sub-therapeutic or [pb_glossary id="606"]growth hormones[/pb_glossary]. The use of growth hormones is illegal for poultry and pork produced in Canada, as well as for dairy cattle. Growth hormones are still in use by some beef cattle producers, but the residual levels are carefully regulated and monitored.

Antibiotics

Antibiotics are used to treat animals that are sick, manage and prevent disease in animals and fruit crops, and promote the healthy growth of certain animals. In Canada, antibiotics are approved for regulated use in beef, dairy cattle, chicken, laying hens, turkey, pork, and fish. Should a dairy cow be treated with antibiotics, its milk can be tested for antibiotic residues. Any milk testing positive for antibiotic residue is not sold for human consumption but is discarded. When poultry are treated with antibiotics, the eggs they lay are discarded. As with hormones, the use of antibiotics is closely regulated, and food products are regularly tested to ensure compliance. In addition, there is a move to reduce the overall use of antibiotics in Canada both in agriculture and for treating human disease due to the increase of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Natural, Free Range, and Organic Meats and Poultry

In the last 25 years, there has been an increased consumer demand for meat and poultry products that have been raised in a humane manner with no added growth hormones or antibiotics, and in the case of poultry, with access to the outdoors. Consumers want to know more about the meat they purchase, and many smaller producers and processors now cater to a rapidly growing number of clients who desire meat and poultry that they are confident has come from a “clean” source. Some of the questions these consumers are likely to ask are:

Which farm did the animal come from?
Was it given growth hormones or antibiotics?
Was the farm a clean place for the animal?
Was the animal treated properly (fed, watered, and sheltered when required)?
How far did the animal have to be transported prior to slaughter and was it handled humanely?
Was the animal handled carefully and humanely at the harvesting plant?
Did the animal have a painless death?

These products may be labelled as natural, [pb_glossary id="595"]free range[/pb_glossary], or [pb_glossary id="634"]organic[/pb_glossary]. When promoting products that are free of hormones and antibiotics, the following statement must be used: "No additional hormones or antibiotics." The word “additional” is required because all animals have natural hormones. Certified organic meats must meet strict requirements of the certifying bodies, such as the Certified Organics Association of BC (COABC), which set standards for feed, pasture, and humane treatment of animals that are certified organic. A list of all certified organic producers can be found on the COABC website. The following definitions for poultry are provided by the BC Chicken Marketing Board:

Free Range means that the bird has access to the outdoors. Due to weather in Canada, the free range season is short.

Free Run means that a bird is able to move freely throughout the barn and is not confined in a cage. All chickens grown in Canada for meat purposes are free run.

Organic chickens are birds raised using certified organic feed and fresh, untreated drinking water. The COABC also requires growers to allow their birds access to pesticide-free pasture for a minimum of six hours a day, weather permitting.

References

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:33:14 +0000

Agricultural Marketing Centre (n.d.) Venison Sources. Retrieved from http://www.agmrc.org/commodities__products/livestock/deer-venison-ranching-profile/ B.C. Chicken Marketing Board (n.d.) Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved from http://bcchicken.ca/index.php/bc-chicken-production/faq/ Bovine spongiform encephalopathy. (2015, August 9). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bovine_spongiform_encephalopathy&oldid=675215904 Canadian Beef Grading Agency (n.d.) Beef Grades. Retrieved from http://beefgradingagency.ca/grades.html Canadian Food Inspection Agency (n.d.) Scrapie. Retrieved from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/scrapie/eng/1329723409732/1329723572482 Canadian Food Inspection Agency. (n.d.) Meat and Poultry Inspection. Retrieved from http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/meat-and-poultry-products/eng/1300124955992/1300125034322 Canadian Professional Meat Cutters Association. (n.d.) CPMCA Manual of Meat Cutting & Processing Cholesterol. (2015, August 2). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cholesterol&oldid=674152799 Deer and Elk Farmer’s Information Network. (n.d.) Venison. Retrieved from http://www.deerfarmer.org/index.php/venison Eat Right Ontario (n.d.) Hormones and Antibiotics in Food Production. Retrieved from https://www.eatrightontario.ca/en/Articles/Farming-Food-production/Hormones-and-antibiotics-in-food-production.aspx Government of Canada (1990) Meat Inspection Regulations. Retrieved from http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/regulations/SOR-90-288/FullText.html Listeria. (2015, August 9). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Listeria&oldid=675214088 Merck Manuals (n.d) An overview of Meat Inspection. In Merck Veterinary Manual. Retrieved from http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/clinical_pathology_and_procedures/meat_inspection/overview_of_meat_inspection.html Myrhvold, N and Young, C (2011) Cooking Pork Safely – the Science. In Food and Drink Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2011/may/26/cooking-pork-safely-the-science National Heart, Lung, and Blood Instiute (n.d.) What is Cholesterol? Retrieved from http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/hbc Trichinosis. (2015, July 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trichinosis&oldid=673674084

About the Authors

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:35:22 +0000

This series of Open Textbooks has been developed collaboratively on behalf of the BC Provincial Cook Articulation Committee and go2HR. The committee would like to thank the following individuals for their contributions to developing, editing and reviewing these texts:

Wendy Anderson	Selkirk College
Martin Barnett	Vancouver Island University
David Bensmiller	University of the Fraser Valley
Fionna Chong	Vancouver Community College
Ron Christian	College of New Caledonia
Darren Clay	Pacific Institute of Culinary Arts
Tim Curnow	College of the Rockies
Corey Davison	Thompson Rivers University
Michael French	Northern Lights College
Rita Gower	Vancouver Island University
Dennis Green	go2HR
Linda Halingten	go2HR
Ken Harper	Vancouver Island University
Ken Jakes	Jakes and Associates Meat Industry Consultants
Kimberly Johnstone	Thompson Rivers University
Zito Kare	go2HR
Stuart Klassen	Okanagan College
Philip Lie	Vancouver Community College
Christine Lilyholm	North Island College
Tobias Macdonald	Vancouver Community College
Robyn Mitz	Selkirk College
Gilbert Noussitou	Camosun College
Harry Pringle	Selkirk College
Tony Rechsteiner	College of New Caledonia
Debbie Shore	Vancouver Island University
Ysabel Sukic	Vancouver Community College
Brad Vennard	Northwest Community College
Luzia Zemp	Vancouver Community College

Pork primal and sub-primal cuts.

acoolidge — Tue, 08 Sep 2015 17:34:38 +0000

Pork cut chart

acoolidge — Tue, 08 Sep 2015 18:01:53 +0000

Lamb carcass

acoolidge — Tue, 08 Sep 2015 18:03:30 +0000

Lamb primal and sub-primal cuts

acoolidge — Tue, 08 Sep 2015 18:04:32 +0000

Lamb cuts

acoolidge — Tue, 08 Sep 2015 18:08:02 +0000

Versioning History

kqzheng — Wed, 12 Jun 2019 23:20:38 +0000

This page provides a record of edits and changes made to this book since its initial publication in the BC Open Textbook Collection. Whenever edits or updates are made, we make the required changes in the text and provide a record and description of those changes here. If the change is minor, the version number increases by 0.1. However, if the edits involve substantial updates, the version number goes up to the next full number. The files on our website always reflect the most recent version, including the Print on Demand copy. If you find an error in this book, please fill out the Report an Error form. We will contact the authors, make the necessary changes, and replace all file types as soon as possible. Once we receive the updated files, this Versioning History page will be updated to reflect the edits made.

Version	Date	Change	Details
1.00	June 17, 2015	Book added to the BC Open Textbook Collection.
1.01	June 12, 2019	Updated the book's theme.	The styles of this book have been updated, which may affect the page numbers of the PDF and print copy.
2.00	July 4, 2019	Entire book revised for accessibility.	Accessibility remediation: Image descriptions added. Tables reformatted for accessibility. Link text edited to be descriptive. Headings added. Added an Accessibility Statement Other changes: Added pop-up definitions for key terms in webbook Moved media attributions to end of each section Removed broken links: http://www.cdnlamb.com/electronicgrading.htm from "Grading Regulation for Meat."
2.01	July 22, 2019	The following changes were part of a project to standardize BCcampus-published books.	Added additional publication information and sample citation Updated copyright information Renamed “About the book” to “About BCcampus Open Education” and updated the content Added a Versioning History page Updated the book cover

Key Terms

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 22:00:53 +0000

Beef Up Your Knowledge- Meat Marbling 101

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 22:22:41 +0000

List of Links by Part for Print Users

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 22:43:44 +0000

Front Matter

Adoption of an Open Textbook: https://open.bccampus.ca/use-open-textbooks/tell-us-youre-using-an-open-textbook/
BCcampus: https://bccampus.ca/
BCcampus Open Education: https://open.bccampus.ca/
British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, Skills & Training: https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/organizational-structure/ministries-organizations/ministries/advanced-education-skills-training
Creative Commons licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/
Hewlett Foundation: http://www.hewlett.org/

Meat Science and Nutrition

Certified Organics Association of BC (COABC): http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca
Cyst: http://www.medicinenet.com/cyst/article.htm
Grandin Livestock Handling Systems, Inc.: https://www.grandinlivestockhandlingsystems.com/

Inspection and Grading of Meats and Poultry

Alberta Pork: https://www.albertapork.com/
BC Pork: http://www.bcpork.ca/
Canadian Pork Council: https://www.cpc-ccp.com/
Canadian Pork International: http://www.canadapork.com/en/
Reportable Diseases: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/animals/terrestrial-animals/diseases/reportable/eng/1303768471142/1303768544412
Western Hog Exchange Grading Grids: https://www.westernhogexchange.com/about/marketing/GradingGrids.aspx

Cutting and Processing Meat

Canadian Beef Merchandising Guide: https://wagyu.org/uploads/page/Canadian%20Beef%20Merchandising%20Guide.pdf
CFIA: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/meat-cuts-manual/eng/1300126276015/1300126372856
CFIA Beef Cuts Manual: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/meat-and-poultry-products/packaging-and-labelling/meat-cuts-manual/beef/eng/1348582373896/1348589471777
CFIA Meat Cuts Manual: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/labelling/meat-cuts-manual/eng/1300126276015/1300126372856
CFIA Veal Cuts Manual: http://www.inspection.gc.ca/food/requirements-and-guidance/labelling/industry/meat-and-poultry-products/meat-cuts/veal/eng/1348771541038/1348771745050
Lamb Primal Cuts Poster: http://johnstons.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Lamb-Cut-Chart.jpg
Veal Cut Chart: http://ontariovealappeal.ca/veal-101/cuts/

Cover Image

jgray — Mon, 22 Jul 2019 14:51:21 +0000

Preface

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:12 +0000

This book is intended to give students a basic understanding of the various types of meat and poultry used in the food service industry, and of how the terminology used by retail, wholesale, and food service customers varies. Meat cutting for restaurants and hotels differs slightly from meat cutting for retail. Restaurants and hotels sometimes use names of cuts on menus that are common in the kitchen vernacular or in other jurisdictions like Europe or the United States, while retail meat cutters are bound by Canadian regulations regarding labelling and marketing of meat products to consumers for retail. Meat Cutting and Processing for Food Service is one of a series of Culinary Arts books developed to support the training of students and apprentices in British Columbia’s food service and hospitality industry. Although created with the Professional Cook and Baker programs in mind, these have been designed as a modular series, and therefore can be used to support a wide variety of programs that offer training in food service skills. Other books in the series include:

Food Safety, Sanitation, and Personal Hygiene
Working in the Food Service Industry
Workplace Safety in the Food Service Industry
Human Resources in the Food Service and Hospitality Industry
Ingredients, Nutrition, and Labelling
Modern Pastry and Plated Dessert Techniques

The series has been developed collaboratively with participation from public and private postsecondary institutions.

About BCcampus Open Education

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:33:35 +0000

BCcampus Open Education began in 2012 as the B.C. Open Textbook Project with the goal of making post-secondary education in British Columbia more accessible by reducing student costs through the use of openly licensed textbooks and other OER. BCcampus supports the post-secondary institutions of British Columbia as they adapt and evolve their teaching and learning practices to enable powerful learning opportunities for the students of B.C. BCcampus Open Education is funded by the British Columbia Ministry of Advanced Education, Skills & Training, and the Hewlett Foundation. Open textbooks are open educational resources (OER) created and shared in ways so that more people have access to them. This is a different model than traditionally copyrighted materials. OER are defined as teaching, learning, and research resources that reside in the public domain or have been released under an intellectual property license that permits their free use and re-purposing by others.[footnote]"Open Educational Resources," Hewlett Foundation, https://hewlett.org/strategy/open-educational-resources/ (accessed September 27, 2018).[/footnote] Our open textbooks are openly licensed using a Creative Commons licence, and are offered in various e-book formats free of charge, or as printed books that are available at cost. For more information about open education in British Columbia, please visit the BCcampus Open Education website. If you are an instructor who is using this book for a course, please fill out our Adoption of an Open Textbook form.

Meat Nutrition

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:34:31 +0000

Meat plays a significant role in the Western diet. Meat is almost completely digestible and rates high on the nutritional scale as it contains high levels of [pb_glossary id="650"]proteins[/pb_glossary], consisting of both essential (indispensable) and dispensable [pb_glossary id="530"]amino acids[/pb_glossary]. Essential amino acids need to be supplied on a daily basis by diet, while the body is capable of producing dispensable amino acids on its own. Meat and other animal proteins can supply all the essential amino acids required for the human body. Meat is also rich in B complex [pb_glossary id="694"]vitamins[/pb_glossary], such as thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin, but the fat-soluble vitamins are not all found in meat. Minerals essential for the diet, with the exception of calcium, are found in meat, including phosphorus, iron, copper, and trace minerals. Table 4 lists the vitamins and main nutrients found in meat and meat products.

Table 4 - Nutrients in meat and meat products (Canadian Professional Meat Cutters Association)
Vitamins	Sources
A	Certain oils, egg yolk, mammalian liver
D	Fresh liver oils and fatty tissue
E	Green leafy vegetables, animal organs (pituitary gland, adrenals, pancreas, and spleen), milk, butter, and abdominal fat
K	Green vegetables, potatoes, fruits, and liver oils
Thiamin B1	Meat, liver, and kidney
Riboflavin B2	Milk and meat
B6	Red meat, liver, kidney, brain, cod liver, egg yolk, and milk
B12	Liver, kidney, and egg yolk
Niacin	Liver and red meat
Pantothenic acid	Liver, kidney, [pb_glossary id="628"]muscle meat[/pb_glossary], brain, and egg yolk
Biotin	Liver, kidney, muscle meat, egg yolk, and milk
Folic acid	Liver, kidney, muscle meat, milk, and cheese

Cholesterol Content in Meat

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:35:45 +0000

What is [pb_glossary id="550"]cholesterol[/pb_glossary] and why do cooks and meat processors need to know more about it? Cholesterol is essential for the structure and function of every cell in the body. Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that is found in all cells of the body and similarly in the meat of animals. The body makes all of the cholesterol it needs to function normally, but additional cholesterol enters the body through the consumption of animal products such as meat, eggs, and dairy. There are two types of cholesterol found in the body. [pb_glossary id="610"]High-density lipoprotein (HDL)[/pb_glossary] cholesterol is commonly called "good" cholesterol, as opposed to [pb_glossary id="618"]low-density-lipoprotein (LDL)[/pb_glossary] cholesterol (“bad” cholesterol). LDL and HDL travel in the bloodstream, carrying cholesterol to wherever it needs to go within the body. HDL carries cholesterol back to the liver, where the body can process and remove it, while LDL leaves small traces of cholesterol on the walls of arteries as it travels. Too much cholesterol, high levels of LDL in particular, may cause atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque (which is made up of cholesterol, fat, calcium, and other substances found in the blood) is deposited in artery walls, blocking the blood flow to vital organs, which can result in high blood pressure or stroke. Cholesterol levels are measured by the concentration of HDL and LDL in the blood. A blood test will identify the amount of HDL, LDL, and [pb_glossary id="684"]triglycerides[/pb_glossary] (the most common type of fat found in the body) present in the blood. A total cholesterol value is calculated by adding the amount of HDL, LDL, and 20% of the triglycerides together. This is represented in either micromoles per litre (mmol/L) or milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL). In Canada, physicians use mmol/L, while in the United States, mg/dL is more common. A total cholesterol level of 5.2 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) or below is recommended for an adult, with a level of 4.65 mmol/L (180 mg/dL) considered optimal. People with higher than recommended cholesterol levels are usually advised to be on a low cholesterol diet; therefore, we need to know more about which foods have less cholesterol so that we can cater to everyone’s dietary needs. Table 5 lists some high-, moderate-, and low-cholesterol foods that are commonly used in restaurant kitchens and meat operations.

Table 5 - High-, medium-, and low-cholesterol foods
High-Cholesterol Foods	mg per 100 grams
Butter	250
Clarified butter	256
Cream cheese	110
Whole eggs	372
Egg yolks	1,085
Heavy whipping cream	137
Light whipping cream	111
Yellow cheese	108
Lamb kidney	337
Pork liver	301
Lobster	200
Oyster	206
Shrimp	125
Roe	479
Crab meat (Alaskan King)	127
Fish oil, menhaden	521

Meat Handling and Storage Procedures

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:36:35 +0000

Proper handling and storage are two of the most vital processes undertaken by staff once meat orders arrive at their point of sale. Because foodborne illnesses have not been fully eradicated yet, and food storage is often subject to human error, rigid procedures need to be followed to ensure that all products arriving for sale are checked, refrigerated immediately, and stored correctly. Poor food-handling and storage procedures can prove to be disastrous to a food service company and to customers alike. In Canada, an estimated 500,000 cases of foodborne illnesses occur annually. Here are some examples of what can happen if a food poisoning outbreak occurs due to mishandling or poor storage procedures:

Loss of customers and sales
Illness and even death of clients
Loss of prestige and reputation
Costly legal and court costs
Increased insurance premiums
Lower employee morale
Professional embarrassment
Increased cost to the health care system, such as laboratory analysis, physician time, and hospital care
CFIA investigation time and possible consequences if charged

Receiving Procedures

Here are several steps to ensure that meat products are handled in a timely and safe manner once they arrive:

Check to see that the order matches the invoice (number of boxes, etc., and list of product names; have driver and receiver sign off).
Ensure all packages are still sealed and not damaged.
Check the temperature of the delivery truck storage area (was it cold on arrival?).
Sort and move all the meat products immediately to their correct storage coolers.
Ensure fish, meats, and poultry are kept as far apart as possible and fish containers are kept sealed until ready to use.
Check cooler temperatures daily and record data according to health department regulations.
Ensure cooler and freezer doors are kept closed at all times.
Immediately report any unusual temperature fluctuations to your employer.

Storage Procedures

Meat should be packaged appropriately to prevent drying out, spoilage, or [pb_glossary id="597"]freezer burn[/pb_glossary]. Whole sub-primals are often vacuum packed as soon as they are removed from the carcass and will have a long shelf life when kept in the original vacuum packaging. Cut meat products for retail use should be wrapped in permeable film on trays or vacuum packaged after portioning. Cut meat products for food service use may be vacuum packed after cutting or stored in food-grade containers, wrapped appropriately, and stored according to food safety standards. Products for frozen storage should be vacuum packed or wrapped tightly in freezer paper to prevent freezer burn. Coolers should be maintained at 0°C to 2°C (32°F to 35.6°F). This is considered the safest temperature to hold meats and maintain flavour and moisture. Water freezes at 0°C (32°F); however, meat freezes at about -2°C (29°F). Today the most common cooling units are the blower coil type, in which cool air is circulated via coils and fans from a ceiling-mounted unit that draws air from the floor up through the cold coils and then drives air back into the cooler area. Floor areas of the cooler must be free of containers that may impede the airflow. This means that all food containers and boxes must be elevated above floor level. For most modern coolers the [pb_glossary id="611"]humidity[/pb_glossary] levels are built into the system and are maintained automatically. For example, lean beef is made up of approximately 70% moisture to optimize its flavour, sales appeal, and value. Moisture content in the air is expressed as relative humidity and is measured as a percentage. To maintain the moisture in meats, coolers need to maintain a humidity level of approximately 75% to 80%. If the moisture level drops below 70%, shrinkage will occur. However, if the humidity level is too high, moisture will condense onto the meat and appear on the walls of the cooler, creating an excellent medium for bacteria growth and sooner-than-normal meat spoilage. Modern meat coolers and freezers also have a built in defrost cycle, which is usually timed to activate in the early morning hours when there is less traffic in and out of the units. This important cycle is designed to melt away ice buildup on the blower coils (as they operate at below freezing temperatures) into a drain system. This part of the cycle takes about 20 to 60 minutes. Meat freezer temperatures should be maintained at approximately -23°C to -29°C (-10°F to -20°F).

Handling Procedures

Once processing begins, the following steps must be taken to reduce any additional contamination of the product:

Do not allow product in any kind of box or container to come into contact with any cutting or work surface or the floors.
Ensure that all processing tables and cutting boards are already cleaned and sanitized.
Ensure surfaces are dry with no residue of any [pb_glossary id="663"]sanitizer[/pb_glossary] on them (remember that most sanitizers are toxic while wet).
Maintain separate cutting and processing boards for different species, especially fish, chicken, and pork.
Clean and sanitize boards immediately after use and elevate to air dry as quickly as possible.
Have separate cutting boards for cooked meat slicing.
Thoroughly clean and sanitize meat slicers and tenderizers between uses for different species and between cooked and raw products. These slicing tools and machines pose a very real risk for [pb_glossary id="564"]cross-contamination[/pb_glossary] and are always subject to scrutiny by health inspectors.
If possible, process different species and cooked and raw products on different days. This helps minimize risk of cross-contamination in processing areas, tools, and machines that are used for a variety of products.

Introduction to Inspection and Grading of Meats and Poultry

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:42:16 +0000

Learning Objectives

Identify meat inspection levels and agencies
Define the meat inspection process
Describe grading regulations for meat

Introduction

[pb_glossary id="622"]Meat inspection[/pb_glossary] for the domestic animal market is mandatory for beef, pork, lamb, bison, and poultry and is overseen by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). There are two levels of inspection in Canada: federal and provincial. Federally inspected meats can be sold and transported throughout Canada and also exported or sold internationally. Provincially inspected meats can be sold under the following two categories:

Intraprovincially, which means the meat can be sold only within the province where the harvesting plant is located
Interprovincially, which means the meat can be sold in a province or territory other than the one in which the harvesting plant is located

Meat [pb_glossary id="605"]grading[/pb_glossary] measures the characteristics of carcasses and classifies them into groups of similar quality, yield, and value, which in turn assists in marketing and merchandizing the products. Grading standards and regulations are set for each species separately through government consultation with each industry. For example, beef grade standards are set by the Canadian Beef Grading Agency, a non-profit organization that relies on recommendations from an industry and government consultative committee to provide data to assist the federal government in setting guidelines. Similar processes are in place for lamb, pork, and poultry.

The Meat Inspection Process

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:45:45 +0000

Meat inspection is designed to determine the health of animals both prior to death (ante mortem) and after death (post mortem). In federal meat inspection plants, the process is carried out by primary product inspectors (PPIs) from the meat and poultry division of Agriculture and Agri-Foods Canada. The PPIs are overseen by a veterinarian. PPIs also do the inspection in provincial meat plants, but a veterinarian is called in only when a further diagnosis is required. All domestic animals going into the food chain are inspected prior to harvesting (ante mortem). Some of the inspection methods are:

Observing the animals' behaviour that may indicate any signs of disease
Isolating animals that show signs of disease, illness, or injury
Verifying animal identification records and tags
Overseeing humane treatment of animals during herding and slaughter

Following harvesting, animals are inspected by either a provincial or federal inspector. In the case of beef, inspectors examine the following:

Head, an array of lymph nodes near the tongue, and the tongue itself
Esophagus and spleen
Lungs and heart
Bile duct and liver
Other accessible carcass lymph nodes
Diaphragm and kidneys
Carcass internal and external surfaces

Lamb, pork, and poultry carcasses receive similar inspections that focus on the particular species and associated health issues. Some of the hazards that may occur during the slaughter process are:

Contamination of the carcass during the removal of the hide and digestive tract
Cross-contamination during the splitting of the carcass
Bacterial growth during the chilling and aging of carcasses
Cross-contamination from specific animal tissue that is high risk for disease, such as BSE [pb_glossary id="671"]specified risk materials (SRMs)[/pb_glossary] (e.g., spinal cord, brain)

Once the meat is approved for human consumption, the [pb_glossary id="612"]inspection stamp[/pb_glossary] can be made along the length of the carcass. The stamp appears as a blue circle with the word "Canada" inside the circle rim, with a crown in the centre and the plant number at the bottom (Figure 13). [caption id="attachment_62" align="alignnone" width="600"] Figure 13. Meat inspection stamps (CFIA)[/caption]

Grading Regulations for Meat

acoolidge — Wed, 26 Aug 2015 17:33:32 +0000

Meat grading for beef is governed by the Canada Agricultural Products Act and the Livestock and Poultry Carcass Grading Regulations, which also apply to all other domestic species where grading is used. Grading standards and criteria differ somewhat for each species. Grading is carried out on the animal carcass, which must already be approved for health and safety standards and bear an inspection stamp. Grading categorizes carcasses by quality, yield, and value, and provides producers, wholesalers, retail meat operations, and restaurants the information they need to purchase a grade of meat that suits their particular needs. Grading is also intended to ensure that the consumer has a choice in selecting a consistent and predictable quality of meat.

Beef Grading

The grader assesses several characteristics of a beef carcass to determine quality (Table 6).

Table 6- Beef carcass quality factors
Beef Characteristics	Beef Carcass Quality Factors
Maturity (age)	The age of the animal affects tenderness.
Sex (male or female)	Pronounced masculinity in animals (males) affects meat colour and palatability (texture and taste).
Conformation (muscle shape)	Meat yield is influenced by the degree of muscling.
Fat (colour, texture, and cover)	Fat colour and texture (white as opposed to yellow) influence consumer acceptability, whereas fat cover affects meat yield.
Meat (colour, texture, and marbling)	Meat marbling affects quality: juiciness and tenderness. Colour and texture influence consumer acceptability.

Table 7 lists the 13 grades of beef carcasses and the colour of each [pb_glossary id="660"]roller brand[/pb_glossary] that is placed along the length of the carcass (Figure 14). [caption id="attachment_65" align="aligncenter" width="307"] Figure 14. Rolled grade stamp on beef carcass.[/caption]

Table 7- Beef grades
Red	Blue	Brown	Brown
Canada A	Canada B1	Canada D1	Canada E
Canada AA	Canada B2	Canada D2
Canada AAA	Canada B3	Canada D3
Canada Prime	Canada B4	Canada D4

Beef carcasses are graded in the A category using the following determinations:

The age of the carcass is assessed (must be youthful).
Fat levels are assessed by measuring with a special ruler on the left side of the carcass between the 12th and 13th ribs across the ribeye muscle at the 12th rib (the front quarter of beef).
An additional assessment of the external fat cover of both sides is made. Grade A beef has a fat covering that is firm and white or slightly tinged with a reddish or amber colour and is not more than 2 mm in thickness at the measurement site.
A muscle score is determined from a grid depending on the width and length of the ribeye muscle. Grade A beef has muscling that ranges from good with some deficiencies to excellent.
Ten minutes after having been exposed, the ribeye muscle shows firm and bright red in colour (bloom).

In addition, only A grade carcasses are assessed for the three lean meat yield classes. [pb_glossary id="698"]Yield grading[/pb_glossary] is determined by measuring exterior fat thickness as well as the length and the width of the ribeye muscle at the 12th rib (Figure 15). The yield classes are indicated by a triangular-shaped stamp in red ink placed on the short-loin and rib sections of each side of the carcass. Yield classes are shown in Table 8. [caption id="attachment_66" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 15. Measuring yield for grading showing length (1), width (2), and fat thickness (3).[/caption]

Table 8 - Yield classes and percentages
Yield class stamp	Meat yield
Canada 1	59% or higher
Canada 2	54% to 58%
Canada 3	53% or lower

The A grades are assessed further to determine the marbling (intramuscular fat content), as shown in Table 9 and illustrated in Figure 16.

Table 9- Required marbling content of A grades
Grade	Marbling content
Canada A	At the least, traces, but less than a slight amount
Canada AA	At the least, a slight amount, but less than a small amount
Canada AAA	At the least, a small amount
Canada Prime	At the least, slightly abundant

[caption id="attachment_69" align="aligncenter" width="313"] Figure 16. A grade marbling chart. Courtesy Beef Grading Centre[/caption] These marbling assessments offer the purchaser different levels of fat content to market. For example, some stores promote only AAA beef. A custom processor may want to dry age beef carcasses longer for his customers, but if he doesn't want to have too high a waste factor (with fat), he may prefer to purchase AA or A beef. Restaurants may choose Canada Prime that shows a lot of marbling, has longer aging ability (wet aging, vacuum sealed), and therefore, in the long term, is more tender. B grade beef (blue) is still good-quality meat for eating but doesn’t have the same consumer appeal as A grade. B grade beef is usually cheaper and doesn’t dry age as well as A grade. Table 10 provides B grade characteristics.

Table 10- Characteristics of B grade beef
Grade	Age	Muscling	Ribeye muscle	Marbling	Fat colour and texture	Fat measurement
B1	Youthful	Firm, bright, and red	Devoid	Firm white or amber	Firm white or amber	Less than 2 mm
B2	Youthful	Bright red	Bright red	Yellow	Yellow	No requirement
B3	Youthful	Bright red	Bright red	White or amber	White or amber	No requirement
B4	Youthful	Dark red	Bright red	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement

D grade beef (brown) characteristics are shown in Table 11. D2 to D4 animals are used extensively in ground meat and in the manufacturing of sausage products.

Table 11- Characteristics of D grade beef
Grade	Age	Muscling	Ribeye muscle	Marbling	Fat colour and texture	Fat measurement
D1	Mature (old)	Excellent	No requirement	No requirement	Firm white or amber	Less than 15 mm
D2	Mature (old)	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement	White to Yellow	Less than 15 mm
D3	Mature (old)	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement	Less than 15 mm
D4	Mature (old)	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement	No requirement	More than 15 mm

E grade beef (brown) comes from youthful or mature (older) animals with pronounced masculinity, heavy shoulders, and lean and darker meat. These animals, often bulls and stags (unsuccessfully castrated bulls), are used extensively in the manufacturing of sausage products and ground meat.

Bison Grading

A new system for bison grading was developed in the 1990s. It is based on the beef grading system but takes into account the natural differences of the bison carcass. The official grading began in 1995, and on the basis of these standards the European Community (EC) approved bison sales to Europe. There are nine bison grades, which are evaluated for maturity, muscling, meat quality, and fat measurement. The grades are A1, A2, A3, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, and D2. Bison traditionally live longer than beef, and their bones and joints harden (ossify) more slowly. Furthermore, they are more heavily muscled in the shoulders and less muscled in the hindquarters than beef. These differences must be taken into account by the grader. Bison is now farmed in some provinces, including British Columbia and Alberta, and in several states in the United States. The product has become a popular alternative protein source, particularly with specialty meat markets and high-end restaurants. Table 12 compares bison and beef grading.

Table 12- Differences between bison and beef grading
Bison	Beef
9 grades	13 grades
Knife ribbed between 11th and 12th ribs	Knife ribbed between the 12th and 13th ribs
1 mm minimum fat cover for A grades	4 mm minimum fat cover for A grades
Heavily muscled fronts	Heavily muscled hinds
3 maturity divisions	2 maturity divisions
More age in A grades than beef	Less age in A grades than bison
Grade stamped brown	Grade stamped red
5 stamps per carcass side	2 stamps per carcass side
Not ribbon branded	Ribbon branded
No marbling assessment	Marble assessed
3 meat yield grades	3 meat yield % for A grades

Veal Grading

Veal is meat from the young bovine born into the dairy industry. Most veal is sold through restaurants. However, today very few retail markets sell veal due to the low consumer demand. Veal grading assesses both fat (creamy white) and good muscling as is done on beef, but it focuses even more on the colour of the flesh to determine the eventual grade. Veal is generally very tender due to its age and has a mild (some might even say bland) flavour, with little fat cover and marbling. There are several types of veal (Table 13).

Table 13- Veal types and descriptions
Veal Types	Age	Characteristics	Carcass Weight
Baby veal (Bob veal)	3-30 days	Males, classified as “light,” sold whole for festive occasions and roasted whole	9-27 kg (20-60 lb)
Vealers (light)	1-3 months	Raised on milk with no restrictions on other types of feeds such as hay or grains	36-68 kg (80-150 lb)
Nature (white veal)	Up to 5 months	Very expensive, white-pinkish flesh, no iron in diet, raised in pens, limited movement permitted	82-109 kg (180-240 lb)
Calves (heavy)	Up to 5 months	Raised on milk and fed on grain-hay combinations; physically beginning to change from veal to beef	68-136 kg (150-300 lb)

Youthful bovine carcasses weighing less than 160 kg (32.2 lb) (hide off) are classified as veal by the Canadian beef grading program and are graded as shown in Table 14.

Table 14- Muscling requirements for veal grades
Grade	Requirements
Canada A1 to A4	Carcasses with at least good muscling and some creamy white fat
Canada B1 to B4	Carcasses with low to medium muscling and an excess of fat cover
Canada C1 and C2	Carcasses failing to meet the requirements of Canada B

All veal carcasses are then graded for meat colour. The veal grader uses a Minolta colour reflectance meter to do this. The carcasses are assigned a numerical value based on the objective measurement of meat colour. Then the carcasses are segregated into four colour classifications, based on the meter reading values. The most pale white colour range is given a grade of 1 and is assigned an A grade provided the kidney fat and muscling meet the A standard. As meat colour becomes more pink, grades of 2, 3, and 4 are assigned. This scientific method of assessing meat colour is being continually refined. Research is now underway to develop a meat probe that will directly measure the level of meat pigment, which is the basis of all colour analysis. Should this method of colour determination be judged superior to the current methods, this new technology will be adopted. This process of muscle and colour grading ensures that purchasers of Canadian veal can specify their exact quality requirements. Table 15 shows how the colour ranges are assigned the correct grade.

Table 15- Colour requirements for veal grading
Veal Grades	Veal Flesh Colour
Canada A1	White 50 +
Canada A2	Pink 40-49
Canada A3	Pale red 30-39
Canada A4	Red 0-29
Canada B1	Bright pink 50+
Canada B2	Pink 40-49
Canada B3	Pale red 30-39
Canada B4	Red 0-29
Canada C1	Pink or lighter 40 +
Canada C2	Pale or dark red 39 or less

Table 16 shows the criteria used to establish veal grades.

Table 16- Veal grading criteria
Grade	Kidney Fat	Muscling
A1-A4	Covered with fat that is not excessive and is creamy white or pink tinged	At least good and free of depressions; 3 out of 4 of: 1. At least a straight profile for upper portion of leg 2. Loins wide and thick 3. Racks well covered 4. Shoulder points well covered
B1-B4	Covered with fat deposits ranging from small to large	At least low to medium, some depressions; 3 out of 4 of: 1. Hip joints noticeable but not prominent 2. Loins with depressions 3. Racks sparsely covered with flesh 4. Shoulder points noticeable but not prominent
C1 and C2	Extremely small deposits of fat on kidneys	Deficient to excellent

Lamb Grading

Lamb has become an increasingly popular protein in restaurants, local markets, and high-end stores in recent years. In addition, there is a growing need to supply the diverse ethnic trade market, which includes a growing Muslim community. The lamb grading service is delivered by the Canadian Sheep Federation, which has been accredited by the CFIA to perform this function. The current system is voluntary and is designed to provide more information to producers and consumers. However, new technology is currently being developed to improve and speed up the current system at federal plants. The seven lamb carcass grades are shown in Table 17, and the five mutton carcass grades are shown in Table 18.

Table 17- Lamb grades
Grades	Lamb Ribbon Brand Colour
Canada A1, A2, A3, A4	Red
Canada B	Blue
Canada C1, C2	Brown

Table 18- Mutton grades
Grades	Mutton Ribbon Brand Colour
Canada D1, D2, D3, D4	Black
Canada E	Black

Currently in Canada, lamb (sheep under 12 months of age) and mutton (sheep 12 months of age or older) are graded by a generic system used in all regions. The measures to assess the grade are:

Age, determined by the colour of the [pb_glossary id="542"]break joint[/pb_glossary] on the front leg
Weight
Lean meat content and colour
Fat content and colour
Conformation or external shape of the carcass

These factors are further classified to determine a final grade using a formula integrating all the data collected, as noted in Table 19.

Table 19- Lamb grading criteria
Factors	Determining characteristics
Break joint colour	Purple, red (young), or white (old)
Meat colour	Designated a C only when the carcass exhibits extremely dark meat (old)
Sex	Male or female
Fat cover	● + (plus sign) for excessive covering ● N for normal covering ● -- (minus sign) for deficient covering
Conformation (shape), which then determines a muscle score of 1 to 5	● + (plus sign) for good to excellent ● N for medium to good ● -- (minus sign) for marked deficiencies ● 1 indicates extreme deficiencies ● 5 indicates excellent muscling
Exterior fat depth (EFD)	Actual fat depth as measured by a ruler over the 12th rib 11 cm from carcass back midline
Fat colour	Designated with a Y when a carcass exhibits yellow fat
Weight	Indicated by warm carcass weight (WCW)

Pork Grading

Requirements for pork grading are established under the authority of the Canada Agricultural Products Act and the Livestock and Poultry Carcass Grading Regulations. In commercial agriculture, pigs raised for food (pork) are usually referred to as hogs. Once the carcasses have been graded, the meat is always referred to as pork. Hogs are popular farm animals because they mature more quickly than other animals and are ready for slaughter at approximately six months of age. Hogs must be handled very carefully during the harvesting process as they are easily stressed. To offset some of the stress they are electrically stunned (which is faster and requires quicker bleeding time) or gassed in federal plants in a special chamber that gradually removes the oxygen and then introduces carbon dioxide to ensure a painless death and means less rush prior to bleeding. Pork from youthful hogs is very tender due to the absence of heavy connective tissue. Unlike beef, pork does not need to be aged very long. The flesh has a pinkish colour, a fine texture, and very greasy white fat that enhances the flavour of the meat. Pork is very popular in North America and other Western and European countries and is a popular item on restaurant menus; in addition, it is considered a diverse and profitable product that is increasingly in demand in manufactured products, such as the many varieties of sausages and cured products available today. Canada has several major pork marketing agencies, such as the Canadian Pork Council and Canada Pork International, as well as provincial organizations, such as Alberta Pork and BC Pork, that promote and monitor the industry. All commercial hog carcasses are either federally or provincially inspected. There are 12 grades of hog carcasses with criteria outlined in Table 20.

Table 20- Hog (pork) grades
Hog Grade Classes	# of Grades	Hog Criteria
Canada Yield with 7 classes	1	Weight must be 40 kg (88 lb) or more
Canada Emaciated	1	Weight must be 40 kg (88 lb) or less
Canada Ridgling	1	Has one or two undescended testicles or has both male and female sex organs
Canada Sow 1-6	6	Must be a sow with the required back fat levels, good muscling, straight to convex profile, and barely visible shoulder joints
Canada Sow 7	1	Must be a sow deficient in muscling and finish
Canada Stag	1	A mature porcine animal, castrated before slaughter, and exhibiting pronounced masculinity at time of slaughter
Canada Boar	1	Must be a male carcass with one or more testicles but not a carcass of a ridgling

Modern technology provides a quick and accurate method for grading hogs at federally inspected plants:

An [pb_glossary id="583"]electronic probe[/pb_glossary] is inserted between the third and fourth ribs on the left side of the carcass. The needle has a sensor light on the end.
As the needle is withdrawn from the probe site, it measures meat thickness and fat levels.
These measurements are fed into a computer, which generates a yield class estimating percentage of lean meat.

This method of grading hogs is used to establish producer payments, which are automatically sent to the farmer’s bank account. An overview of the grading process using an electronic probe can be found at https://www.westernhogexchange.com/about/marketing/GradingGrids.aspx

Poultry Grading

All commercial poultry for sale must be inspected at federally or provincially designated poultry harvesting plants and show proof of inspection with a stamp similar to what is shown on beef carcasses: a round stamp with a crown in the centre, the word “Canada” above, and the plant registration number below. Poultry harvesting includes electrical stunning, with the bird's head touching either a charged wand or a charged water bath prior to bleeding. The carcasses are then scalded to loosen the feathers, after which they pass through a fast-rotating automatic feather-plucking drum. This is followed by the evisceration process and meat inspection. The carcass is then passed through a rapid air-chilling system to cool the carcass as quickly as possible. Air-cooled poultry has a much longer shelf life (approximately 5 to 10 days) compared to the shelf life of a poultry carcass that has just been allowed to cool naturally after harvesting and processing. Poultry graders assess the carcasses for several criteria. Those for A grade poultry are shown in Table 21.

Table 21- A grade poultry
Poultry Grading Factors	Criteria for A Grade Poultry
Conformation (shape)	● Refers to the physical points on the outside of the bird ● A grade birds must have normal conformation, including a plump body, stocky legs, and a well-[pb_glossary id="575"]dressed[/pb_glossary] body ● NO missing parts such as wings ● NO crooked keel bone ● NO broken bones, bruises, or cysts
Fleshing (desired quality)	● Refers to the amount and distribution of meat ● A grade birds must have moderately long and broad plump and firm breast meat ● Short, plump legs
Fat covering	● A grade birds have an even covering of fat under the skin ● Good fat cover indicates yellowish or cream-coloured skin ● A blemish or reddish tinge beneath the skin indicates poor fat covering
Bones	● A grade birds must have a soft and pliable keel bone cartilage ● Joints are loose but not springy
Carcass dressing	● A grade birds are free of pin feathers ● Pin feathers will lower carcass saleability

There are three grades of processed poultry. The grade stamp is a maple leaf with the grade’s respective colour and the appropriate grade in the centre (Table 22). These grades are used for chickens but are also used for:

[pb_glossary id="546"]Capons[/pb_glossary]
Rock [pb_glossary id="561"]Cornish hen[/pb_glossary]
Mature chicken
Old [pb_glossary id="661"]rooster[/pb_glossary]
Young and mature turkey
Young and mature [pb_glossary id="579"]duck[/pb_glossary]
Young and mature goose

Table 22- Poultry grades
Poultry Grades	Poultry Grade Colour	Poultry Criteria
Canada A	Red	See Table 21
Canada Utility	Blue	Insufficient fat Not more than the following missing parts: wings, tail, one leg (including the thigh or both drumsticks) small areas of flesh from the carcass skin not more than half of the area of the breast No dislocated or broken bones other than wings or legs No prominent discolourations exceeding a certain size on breast or elsewhere on carcass
Canada C	Brown	Mature or older poultry requiring moist heat cooking

Types of Chicken and Turkey

Chickens are also categorized according to age and size, the most common being frying chicken (also called [pb_glossary id="598"]fryers[/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id="543"]broilers[/pb_glossary]). These are usually 6 to 8 weeks old and weigh approximately 1.1 to 1.6 kg (2 1/2 to 3 1/2 lb). Roasting chickens or [pb_glossary id="659"]roasters[/pb_glossary] are young birds over 8 weeks, but usually between 12 and 20 weeks old, that weigh over 2.2 kg (5 lb). Rock Cornish hens are small chickens that weigh between 500 g and 900 kg (1 to 2 lb). Very young chickens, called [pb_glossary id="644"]poussin[/pb_glossary], are less than 500 g (1 lb). A Capon is a large castrated male that weighs 2.7 to 3.6 kg (6 to 8 lb), and a stewing hen or [pb_glossary id="594"]fowl[/pb_glossary] is an older bird, usually female, over 10 months of age and weighing 2.2 to 3.2 kg (5 to 7 lb). Turkeys are classified by age only. Young turkeys are approximately 24 weeks of age. Mature turkeys are over 24 months of age.

Game Processing, Inspection, and Grading

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:03:27 +0000

The domestic market for game meats in British Columbia and elsewhere in Canada is still developing. Consumers seeking natural meats such as elk and deer (the most sought after commercially available game meats in the country) usually have to access them through farm operations that promote and harvest their own animals, or through meat shops that specialize in retailing game. Other specialty species that are sold commercially are goat (particularly for the ethnic market) and [pb_glossary id="653"]ratites[/pb_glossary], such as [pb_glossary id="635"]ostrich[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="585"]emu[/pb_glossary], which have tried to secure a portion of the market but have been slow to catch on. Muskox is harvested in the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, and game birds, such as [pb_glossary id="640"]pheasant[/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id="672"]squab[/pb_glossary], [pb_glossary id="607"]Guinea fowl[/pb_glossary], and [pb_glossary id="652"]quail[/pb_glossary], are commercially available through specialty retailers and wholesalers. Rabbit and [pb_glossary id="608"]hare[/pb_glossary] are also available, with the majority of commercial production in Quebec and Ontario. All game meats to be sold at the retail level and in restaurants must be either federally or provincially inspected. Grading of game meats is not available in Canada at this time.

Venison

The domestication of deer species for meat and hunting has been taking place for an estimated 2,000 years. The New Zealand venison industry is currently the largest in the world, but deer farming for meat production has grown in Canada, Ireland, Great Britain, the United States, South Africa, and Germany over the last few decades. Currently there is no grading system in place for fallow deer and elk meats in Canada. Meats from the deer species (fallow, mule, whitetail, and red deer) as well as elk, moose, caribou (reindeer), and sometimes antelope are all considered [pb_glossary id="692"]venison[/pb_glossary]. Table 23 provides a short list of venison muscle meats and processed products available, mainly from elk and deer.

Table 23 Venison products available for sale
Venison Muscle Meats for Wholesale and Retail	Venison Processed Products
Leg cuts (from the hip), Denver style	Sausage patties (pre-prepared)
Back loins (strip loins)	Ground meat burgers (pre-prepared)
Tenderloins (whole)	Snack sticks
Racks (10 rib)	Jerky
Sirloin steaks	Hard or dry cured sausage
Shoulder roasts (boneless)	Fresh sausage
Ground meats (mince)	Cooked and smoked sausage

Recently the number of restaurants serving venison and the number of stores selling the processed products have increased. There are approximately 14 licensed farm operations in B.C. and more in Alberta that cater to both domestic and export markets. Fallow deer are one of the smaller deer species and are the main species used for commercial farming. These deer were originally imported live as breeding stock from New Zealand. They adjust well to farm life, are easy to handle, are a relatively gentle species, and can be grown to a very consistent size that suits marketing purposes. Prior to 1990, the bulk of venison sold in British Columbia was imported from New Zealand. Today, approximately 80% of the B.C. venison market is being served by B.C. fallow deer producers. Game-farmed venison has been proven to have a lower fat and cholesterol content than most red meats. The demand for venison has increased greatly in the last few years and continues to grow rapidly. Ranched elk is a culinary treat and is a naturally tender and healthy meat with a mild, distinctive flavour, although some people refer to wild elk meat as the queen of game meats. It can be included in many cooking styles. Elk is very low in cholesterol, and although low in calories it provides the same amount of protein as most other livestock. Studies at the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Station in Lacombe, Alberta, have shown that elk is generally more tender than beef. Currently there are two federally inspected plants in Alberta that accept elk and deer for processing. Wild deer species in B.C., Alberta, and other parts of Canada are not used for farm and meat production. However, some of Canada’s deer species are susceptible to [pb_glossary id="552"]chronic wasting disease (CWD)[/pb_glossary], which is a progressive, fatal disease of the nervous system. It is known as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE). Other TSEs include scrapie in sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. In Canada, CWD is a serious concern for deer and elk farmers and is a reportable disease under the Health of Animals Act. All cases must be reported to the CFIA.

Introduction to Cutting and Processing Meats

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:04:21 +0000

Learning Objectives

Describe the muscle and bone structure of meat
Identify suitable cuts of meat for various cooking methods
Identify primal cuts of beef, lamb, pork, and veal
Identify secondary cuts of beef, lamb, pork, and veal
Describe variety meats and offal
Describe cuts of game

Introduction

You will remember from the first chapter of this book that meat is muscle made up of fibres. These muscle fibres are held together by connective tissue such as collagen and elastin. The amount of connective tissue contained in the muscle (or meat) has to be acknowledged before choosing the appropriate way to prepare the product. A highly exercised muscle, such as a shank or shoulder area, will develop much more connective tissue and more coarse muscle fibres. This means they require a moist heat cooking method. If cooked with liquid, collagen breaks down at 80°C (176°F) into gelatin. This gelatin provides not only body to the cooking liquid but also, more importantly, moisture to the cooked meat and rich flavour. A lightly exercised muscle will contain less connective tissue and more fine muscle fibres, allowing it to be prepared using dry heat cooking methods. Beef tenderloin is a perfect example of this type of meat. Generally, four-legged animals use their shoulder and leg muscles the most; therefore, the cuts from these areas contain more connective tissues and are less tender. The back, rib, and loin sections contain muscles that are used less frequently, and they tend to be the source of the more tender, or choicer, cuts of meat. It is not surprising, therefore, that cuts from these sections tend to be higher priced and are featured more often on restaurant menus. Although the physical structure and names of the muscles in the three main species (cattle, sheep, and hogs) are similar, the cuts are named differently and regulated by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). To further confuse the issue, meat cutters and cooks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and other parts of the world may use different names for the same cuts of meat. It is important to understand that meat cuts to be sold at a retail level must be labelled according to CFIA standards. The same rules do not apply to sale of whole muscles or restaurant cuts to be advertised on a menu. For a complete breakdown of retail labelling requirements, visit the CFIA website.

General cutting procedures and terms

Meat animals are generally broken down from large carcasses into [pb_glossary id="649"]primal[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="675"]sub-primal[/pb_glossary] cuts. These are large parts of the animal that are then further broken down into retail or restaurant cuts. In some cases, primals and sub-primals are cooked whole, but for the most part they are broken down into a number of different types of smaller portion cuts or [pb_glossary id="587"]fabricated cuts[/pb_glossary]. These include:

Roasts – boneless or bone-in large cuts that are meant to be cooked whole and then sliced after cooking into portions

Racks – most common with lamb and pork, these are a special type of roast that contains the rib bones and has been trimmed to show the white portion of the bone. Bones which have been trimmed using this process are called [pb_glossary id="596"]frenched[/pb_glossary].

Steaks and chops – boneless and bone-in individual portion cuts that are cooked and generally served whole or sliced. Chops always have a bone, while steaks can be bone-in (such as a beef T-bone or pork shoulder blade steak) or boneless (such as a tenderloin or sirloin).

Cutlets – thin slices of boneless meat, usually from the leg, which can be mechanically tenderized or pounded. Small round cutlets from the loin or tenderloin are also called [pb_glossary id="623"]medallions[/pb_glossary] or [pb_glossary id="632"]noisettes[/pb_glossary].

Stew or cubed meat – cubes of meat used for stews and other similar dishes

Thinly sliced or [pb_glossary id="584"]emincé[/pb_glossary] – used for stir-fry and similar dishes

Ground – usually made from trim, ground meat is a mixture of lean and fatty trim that has been passed through a grinder. It can be graded depending on fat content, and can be finely or coarsely ground.

Cured and [pb_glossary id="669"]smoked[/pb_glossary] – most common with pork, meat cuts that are cured using a dry or wet cure (brine) and then may be smoked

Primal, Sub-primal, and Secondary Cuts

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:14:28 +0000

Beef

The beef animal is broken down into sides. A side is one-half of a [pb_glossary id="576"]dressed carcass[/pb_glossary] that has been split lengthwise from the neck to the tail. The side can then be split into the front quarter and hind quarter. This cut is made between the 12th and 13th ribs counting from the front of the animal. The beef front quarter is heavily exercised, resulting in an abundance of connective tissue. Moist heat cooking is required on the majority of the sub-primals from the front quarter, with the major exception being the 7-bone rib (prime rib). The hind quarter of beef contains mostly sub-primals that can be prepared using dry heat. Figure 17 illustrates the primal, sub-primal, and retail cuts of beef. [caption id="attachment_79" align="aligncenter" width="412"] Figure 17. Beef carcass showing primal, sub-primal, and retail cuts.[/caption] Beef Front Quarter: The beef front quarter contains four primal cuts, the brisket, foreshank, rib, and chuck (square chuck). The chuck is separated by first cutting across the carcass between the 5th and 6th ribs, which separates the chuck, brisket, and shank from the rib and plate. The second cut passes at a point slightly above the elbow joint and through the cartilage below the first (1st) rib and sternum, and separates the chuck from the brisket and shank. The brisket is further separated from the shank by following the natural contour of the elbow bone. The rib is separated from the plate by a straight cut passing across the ribs at right angles to the first cut at a point slightly below the centre of the rib cage. The primals are then processed into sub-primals by following the cutting lines as shown in Figure 18 and Table 24. [caption id="attachment_80" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 18. Beef primals and sub-primals.[/caption]

Table 24- Beef primals and sub-primals from the front quarter
Primal	Sub-Primal
Rib	Short rib (H) 7-bone rib (G)
Square chuck	Neck (M) Blade (L) Shoulder (N) Cross rib (K)
Brisket	Brisket point (J) Brisket plate (I)
Fore shank	No further break down required (O)

From these sub-primals, further usable portions are processed and retail cuts prepared for the consumer. Beef Hind Quarter: The beef hind quarter is broken down into four primal cuts, the flank, the long loin, the hip, and the sirloin tip. The flank is separated by a straight cut passing approximately parallel to the lumbar backbone (lumbar vertebrae), beginning in close proximity to or through the flank lymph node (prefemoral), and from the plate by a cut passing between the 12th and 13th ribs and cartilage. The hip is separated from the long loin by a straight cut that passes in front of the rump knuckle bone, thereby cutting the pelvic bone into approximately two equal parts. The sirloin tip is then separated from the hip by a "V-shaped" cut beginning approximately at the knee cap, following the full length of the leg bone up to the rump knuckle bone, then towards the flank lymph node. The primals are then processed into sub-primals as shown in Figure 18 and Table 25.

Table 25- Beef primals and sub-primals from the hind quarter
Primal	Sub-Primal
Flank	No further break down required (F)
Long loin	Short loin (E) Sirloin butt (D)
Hip	Inside round (B) Outside round (B-opposite side of bone) Hind shank (A)
Sirloin tip	No further break down (C)

Breakdown of sub-primals into retail and wholesale cuts

From the sub-primals, secondary or portion cuts are obtained. In most cases, there are a number of different secondary cuts that can be obtained from each sub-primal. In addition, there are often different names for the same cut used in the retail, wholesale, or restaurant industry. Table 26 shows the retail and restaurant cuts that come from each of the beef sub-primals.

Table 26- Retail and restaurant cuts of beef (Front Quarter)
Sub-Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Restaurant Cuts	Alternate Names
Short rb	Short ribs simmering (bone in or boneless)	Short ribs
7-bone rib	Prime rib over roast Standing rib oven roast	Prime rib
	Prime rib grillings steak	Rib steak	Côte de boeuf
	Ribeye grilling steak	Ribeye	Delmonico
	Beef ribs(cut from prime rib)	Finger bones	Beef back ribs
Blade	Bottom blade		Chuckeye roll
	Top blade	Flat iron	Mock tender
Cross rib	Cross rib (pot roast or marinating steak)	Short ribs, boneless short ribs	Chuck short rib
	Beef ribs(cut from the cross rib)		Shoulder clod
			Bolo
			Deluxe 4-bone rib
			Flat rib
Brisket point	Brisket pot roast	Corned beef
	Stew beef
	Medium ground beef
Neck	Lean ground beef
Fore shank	Stew beef	Shin meat for consommé

Table 26- Retail and restaurant cuts of beef (Hind Quarter)
Sub-Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Restaurant Cuts	Alternate Names
Flank	Flank marinating steak	Flank steak
	Flank steak London broil
	Lean ground beef
Short loin	Porterhouse grilling steak	Porterhouse
	T-bone grilling steak	T-bone
	Wing grilling steak	Club steak
	Tenderloin grilling steak	Filet, Fillet mignon, medallion	Tournedo, Chateaubriand, Mignonette
	Striploin grilling steak	New York	Top loin
Sirloin butt	Top sirloin (grilling steak and oven roast)	Sirloin steak
	Sirloin cap grilling steak
	Bottom sirloin grilling steak	Tri tip
	Tenderloin butt grilling steak	Chateaubriand, fillet mignon
Inside round	Inside round over roast Inside round marinating steak	Top round	Baron, top side
Outside round	Outside round over roast	Bottom round	Gooseneck, silverside, outside flat
	Outside round marinating steak		Rouladen
	Eye of round oven roast
	Eye of round marinating steak		Swiss steak
	Heel of round (stew or ground)
Sirloin tip	Sirloin tip over roast		Peeled knuckle
	Sirloin tip marinating steak		Ball tip
			Round tip
			Thick flank
Hind shank	Beef shank (crosscut)	Osso-bucco
	Stew beef	Shin meat for consommé
	Lean ground beef

The Beef Information Centre provides a poster (Figure 19) that outlines the cuts of beef. It can be downloaded from their resource page. [caption id="attachment_81" align="aligncenter" width="356"] Figure 19. Beef merchandising guide.[/caption] The CFIA meat cuts manual is an additional resource that shows each beef cut and location in great detail. It can be accessed on the CFIA website. Table 26 shows the cooking potential for cuts from the different beef primals. Generally, the cuts from the same primal are suited for similar cooking methods. Exceptions have been noted.

Table 27 -Suitable cooking methods for cuts of beef from different primals
Hind Quarter Primal	Cooking Potential	Notes (Exceptions)
Flank	Moist heat	The flank steak, which can be [pb_glossary id="621"]marinated[/pb_glossary] and cooked using dry heat
Long loin	Dry heat
Hip	Dry heat	The hind shank and heel of round, which have an abundance of collagen, making them ideal for stewing meat
Sirloin tip	Dry heat
Front Quarter Primal
Rib	Dry heat
Square chuck	Moist heat	Aside from one of the top blade muscles, which can have the heavy collagen removed and be portioned into flat iron steaks, which can be prepared using dry heat
Brisket	Moist heat
Fore shank	Moist heat

Veal

Muscle or flesh of a veal carcass ranges in colour from pink (or lighter) to red. To be classified as veal by CFIA standards, the dressed carcass must weigh less than 180 kg (396 lb). Veal is most commonly sold in vacuum-packed sub-primals. It is seldom dry aged due to the lack of fat cover on the animal. Figure 20 shows the CFIA veal cuts. [caption id="attachment_82" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Figure 20. Veal carcass showing primal, sub-primal, and retail cuts.[/caption] There are six primal cuts from a side of veal, the leg, flank, loin, breast, shoulder, and front shank. The front, containing the shoulder, breast, and front shank, is separated from the whole loin and flank by cutting between the 6th and 7th ribs. The breast and shank are further separated by a cut that goes from just above the joint of the arm bone perpendicular to the ribs. The shank is then separated by following the natural separation of the arm bone. The leg is separated from the whole loin and flank by a straight cut that passes in front of the pin bone. The flank is then separated from the whole loin by a straight cut approximately parallel to the backbone, passing at a point slightly above the cartilage of the 12th rib. The primals are further broken down into sub-primals as shown in Figure 21 and Table 28. Note that there are two ways of cutting the leg into sub-primals accepted by CFIA. [caption id="attachment_83" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Figure 21. Veal primal and sub-primal cuts.[/caption]

Table 28- Primal and sub-primal cuts of veal
Primal	Sub-primal
Veal leg	Leg cuts (sub-primal) and Alternative leg cuts (sub-primals)
	Shank (A) and Shank (A)
	Leg, shank portion (B, portion of C) and Heel of round (bottom portion of B), Round (B)
	Leg, butt portion (D, portion of C) and Sirloin Tip (C), Rump (top portion of B), Sirloin (D)
Veal flank	No further breakdown (G)
Veal loin	Loin (E)
	Rib (or rack) (F)
Veal shoulder	Shoulder arm (J)
	Shoulder blade (H)
	Neck (I)
Veal breast	No further breakdown (K)
Veal front shank	No further breakdown (L)

The sub-primals are cut further into retail or restaurant cuts as shown in Table 29.

Table 29- Veal retail and restaurant cuts
Primal	Sub-Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Restaurant Cuts	Alternate Names
Veal leg	Shank	Veal shank crosscut	Osso-bucco
	Leg, butt portion	Veal inside round	Cutlets, [pb_glossary id="665"]scaloppine[/pb_glossary]	Veal top round
		Veal outside round		Veal bottom round
		Veal leg cutlets (breaded)	Schnitzel
	Sirloin tip	Veal sirloin tip		Veal knuckle
	Sirloin	Veal top sirloin		Veal hip
Veal flank		Ground, sausage	Ground veal
Veal loin	Loin	Veal loin roast	Veal strip loin	Saddle
		Veal loin chops	Veal T-bone
		Veal tenderloin	Veal tenderloin, medallions
	Rib	Veal rib chops	Veal chop
		Veal rib roast	Veal rack	Hotel rack
Veal shoulder		Veal shoulder arm	Shoulder roast, chops	Square chuck
		Veal shoulder blade	Cubed veal, ground veal
Veal breast		Veal breast, rolled, stuffed	Breast of veal, cubed veal, ground veal	Brisket
Veal front shank		Veal shank crosscut	Osso-bucco

The Veal Farmers of Ontario provide a comprehensive veal cut chart (Figure 22) for download. [caption id="attachment_84" align="aligncenter" width="600"] Figure 22. Veal merchandising chart. Courtesy Veal Farmers of Ontario[/caption] The CFIA meat cuts manual is an additional resource that shows each veal cut and location in great detail. It can be accessed on the CFIA website.

Pork

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:18:27 +0000

Pork is a very popular and versatile meat. Due to its size, it can be merchandised and delivered as whole, in sides, or broken down into primals (Figure 23). The majority of the pork comes from choice butcher hogs that are about six months old at the age of slaughter. The entire dressed hog carcass weighs about 75 kilograms (165 pounds). Very little of the hog carcass goes to waste. It can be retailed fresh, cured, or [pb_glossary id="669"]smoked[/pb_glossary] and can be very profitable if merchandised in a number of ways. Intestines are processed for sausage casings, and fat is harvested to be used in sausage manufacturing as well as [pb_glossary id="538"]barding[/pb_glossary] and [pb_glossary id="615"]larding[/pb_glossary] of lean meats. Head, feet, and skin are used for their rich amounts of natural gelatin. Occasionally feet and hocks are sold as [pb_glossary id="678"]sweet pickle[/pb_glossary]. [caption id="attachment_468" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 23. Pork carcass showing primal, sub-primal, and retail cuts.[/caption] The side of pork is broken down into sub-primals from the four primals: pork shoulder, pork leg, pork loin, and pork belly as shown in Figure 24 and Table 30. [caption id="attachment_469" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 24. Pork primal and sub-primal cuts.[/caption]

Table 30 -Pork primals and sub-primals
Primal	Sub-Primal
Pork leg	Pork leg butt portion (D)
	Pork leg shank portion (C)
	Pork hock (B)
	Pork foot (A)
Pork loin	Pork loin rib end (G)
	Pork loin centre (F)
	Pork sirloin (E)
Pork belly	No further breakdown (H)
Pork shoulder	Pork shoulder blade (I)
	Pork shoulder picnic (J)
	Pork jowl (K)
	Pork foot (M)
	Pork hock (L)

Pork Leg

The pork leg is a very lean portion of the hog. It can be separated into three muscle groups: the inside, outside, and tip. It also contains a hock and a foot. The leg is tender and mostly free from connective tissue, making it ideal for dry heat cookery. Fresh roasts and steaks are processed from the leg as well as [pb_glossary id="567"]cutlets[/pb_glossary]. Most commonly, the pork leg is cured and smoked to produce ham. It can also be dry cured and aged to produce prosciutto. Retail and smoked cuts from the leg are shown in Table 31.

Table 31 Pork Leg retail and smoked cuts
Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Retail Cured and smoked Cuts	Alternate Names
Pork Leg	Pork leg inside roast	Pork leg ham whole (b)(bl)	Fresh ham
	Pork leg outside roast	Pork leg ham piece boneless
	Pork leg tip roast
	Pork leg steak (b)(bl)	Pork leg ham steak (b)(bl)
	Pork leg cutlet		Schnitzel
	Pork leg shank portion	Pork leg ham (shank portion)
	Pork leg centre portion
	Pork leg butt portion
	Pork hock	Pork leg ham (butt portion)	Shank
	Pork foot	Pork hock (smoked)	Trotter

Pork Loin

The pork loin is commonly split into three sections: the rib, sirloin, and loin centre. Alternatively, the pork loin can be split at the end of the tenderloin, labelling the two halves as pork loin rib half and pork loin sirloin half. The pork loin is most often merchandised fresh for [pb_glossary id="551"]chops[/pb_glossary] and roasts. The loin in the most tender primal of the hog and is ideal for dry heat cookery. It can be cured and smoked to make favourites such as back bacon. Retail and smoked cuts from the loin are shown in Table 32.

Table 32 Pork Loin retail and smoked cuts. Note: (b) denotes bone-in cut; (bl) denotes boneless cut
Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Retail Cured and smoked Cuts	Alternate names
Pork loin	Pork loin centre chops (b)(bl)	Pork loin centre chop (smoked)	Kassler loin
	Pork loin centre roast (b)(bl)	Pork loin centre back bacon (smoked)	Canadian bacon
	Pork back ribs
	Pork sirloin chop (b)(bl)	Pork sirloin chop smoked	Baby back ribs
	Pork sirloin roast (b)(bl)
	Pork rib chop (b)(bl)	Pork rib chop smoked
	Pork loin rib country-style chop

Pork Shoulder

The pork shoulder is very popular for use in sausage making due to the higher fat content. The sub-primals pork shoulder blade and pork shoulder picnic are derived from the shoulder along with a pork hock and a pork foot. It can be merchandised as fresh roasts and steaks, cured and smoked products, and for deli meats such as capicollo. Retail and smoked cuts from the shoulder are shown in Table 33.

Table 33- Pork shoulder retail and smoked cuts. Note: (b) denotes bone-in cut; (bl) denotes boneless cut
Sub-primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Retail Cured and Smoked Cuts	Alternate Names
Pork shoulder blade	Pork shoulder blade Steaks (b)(bl)
	Pork shoulder blade roast (b)(bl)	Pork cottage roll (smoked)	Pork butt Boston butt
Pork shoulder picnic	Pork shoulder picnic blade portion	Pork shoulder picnic (smoked)	The blade and picnic together are sometimes referred to as the Montreal shoulder
	Pork shoulder picnic shank portion
	Pork riblets
Pork jowl		Pork jowl (smoked)	Jowl bacon
Pork foot		Pickled pigs' feet
Pork hock		Smoked hocks

Pork Belly

The pork belly contains the most amount of fat on the hog. It contains the pork side ribs and pork breastbone. When the side ribs are removed, the retail name for the belly is side pork. This is the section cured and smoked to make pork side bacon. The side pork can also be rolled and processed to make pancetta. Retail and smoked cuts from the belly are shown in Table 34.

Table 34 Pork belly retail and smoked cuts.
Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Retail Cured and Smoked Cuts	Alternate names
Pork belly	Side pork fresh	Pork side bacon	Pork belly
	Pork side ribs		Spareribs
	Pork side ribs center cut		St. Louis ribs

Figure 25 shows the different pork cuts. For a complete Canadian pork cuts chart, visit Manitoba Pork. [caption id="attachment_470" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 25 Pork cut chart.[/caption]

Lamb

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:21:26 +0000

Lamb refers to young male and female sheep. They are slaughtered at approximately six months of age. The lamb carcass dressed weight is usually between 25 and 27 kg (50 and 60 lb). Because it is young, lamb is very tender, promoting dry heat cooking for most of the animal. Due to the high price per pound and small carcass size, lamb is most often marketed with the bone in. Sheep over the age of 12 months is referred to as mutton. Mutton has a much stronger flavour and is less tender than lamb. [caption id="attachment_471" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 26 Lamb carcass.[/caption] The lamb carcass (Figure 26) is broken into four primals: front, leg, loin, and flank. The lamb front is then broken into four sub-primals: the lab shoulder, neck, fore shank, and breast. The lamb leg can be left whole or split into leg shank and butt portion. The loin consists of two parts: the rib and loin. Locations of primal and cub-primal cuts of lamb are shown in Figure 27 and Table 35. [caption id="attachment_472" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 27. Lamb primal and sub-primal cuts.[/caption]

Table 35 - Primal and sub-primal cuts of lamb.
Primal	Sub-primals
Leg	Shank (A),Leg, shank portion (B), Leg, butt portion (C and D), Sirloin (E)
Loin	Rib (rack) (G), Loin (F)
Flank	No further breakdown (H)
Front	Shoulder (J), Breast (L), Neck (I), Shank (M)

The primals and sub-primals are further broken down into retail and restaurant cuts as shown in Table 36.

Table 36: Retail and restaurant cuts of lamb.
Primal	Retail Meat Sales Cuts	Restaurant Cuts	Alternate Names
Lamb leg	Lamb leg shank portion	Leg of lamb
	Lamb leg butt portion
	Lamb leg sirloin chops	Lamb sirloin (boneless)
	Lamb shank
Lamb loin	Lamb loin chops	Lamb T-bone
	Lamb rib chops	Lamb chops	Lamb popsicles
	Lamb rack	Rack of lamb	Both lamb racks can be used to produce a crown roast
Lamb flank	Lamb flank rolled (boneless)
Lamb shoulder	Lamb shoulder arm chops
	Lamb shoulder blade chops
	Lamb neck chops
	Lamb shoulder roast	Lamb shoulder	Oyster shoulder
	Lamb shank

Figure 28 displays retail lamb cuts. To download this poster: [caption id="attachment_473" align="alignnone" width="500"] Figure 28 Lamb cuts.[/caption]

Offal (Variety Meats)

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:22:17 +0000

[pb_glossary id="633"]Offal[/pb_glossary], also referred to as [pb_glossary id="691"]variety meats[/pb_glossary], is the name for internal organs and entrails of a butchered animal. The word does not refer to a particular list of edible organs, which varies by culture and region, but includes most internal organs excluding muscle and bone. Some cultures shy away from offal as food, while others use it as everyday food or in delicacies. Some offal dishes are considered gourmet food in international cuisine. This includes foie gras, pâté, and sweetbreads. Other offal dishes remain part of traditional regional cuisine and may be consumed especially in connection with holidays such as the Scottish tradition of eating haggis on Robbie Burns Day. Intestines are traditionally used as casings for sausages. Depending on the context, offal may also refer to those parts of an animal carcass discarded after butchering or skinning. Offal not used directly for human or animal food is often processed in a rendering plant, producing material that is used for fertilizer or fuel or, in some cases, it may be added to commercially produced pet food. Table 37 lists the most common types of offal from the various species.

Table 37 Common types of offal
Species	Common Offal	Uses/Notes
Beef	Heart	Beef offal is more commonly retailed
	Liver
	Kidney
	Tongue
	Tripe
	Oxtail	The only external offal meat
Veal	Heart
	Liver	Veal offal is more commonly served in restaurants than other types.
	Kidney
	Tongue
	Brains
	Sweetbreads	Thymus gland
Pork	Liver	Pork offal is stronger in flavour; the liver is most commonly used in pâté.
	Heart
	Kidney
	Intestines	Used for sausage casings
	Skin	Used to make cracklings or chicharron
	Blood	Used for blood sausage and black pudding
Lamb	Liver	Lamb offal is milder in flavour
	Heart
	Kidney
	Tongue
	Intestines	Used for sausage casings
Chicken	Heart, Liver, Gizzard	These three are often referred to as giblets as a whole.
Duck/Goose	Liver	fatty livers.

Liver: Liver is very fine textured and is almost devoid of the characteristic fibre bundles found in red meat (liver has no grain). Consequently, it is very tender and can be sliced in any direction needed to attain the best yield. It can be prepared using dry heat. It has a very distinct flavour and is relatively inexpensive.
Kidney: Kidneys are either smooth, bean-shaped (in lamb and pork) or irregularly shaped with reddish-brown lobes and deep clefts (beef). Beef kidneys are very tough and require intense moist heat cookery.
Heart: Heart is retailed whole, halved, or cut into slices depending on species and size. The inside of the heart contains string-like sinew, which should be removed if the heart is being stuffed and cooked. Dry heat is suitable for cooking heart. It is commonly stuffed and roasted whole or slices are seasoned and pan-fried.
Tongue: The surface of the tongue is very coarse and requires a long period of slow cooking to be able to remove it (six to eight hours of simmering). Once skinned, the tongue can be sliced and is quite tender. There is a very large amount of gelatin in the meat which provides a rich flavour. It is often pickled or corned before cooking.
[pb_glossary id="685"]Tripe[/pb_glossary]: Tripe is processed from the muscular inner lining of the stomach. It can be smooth or honey-combed depending on which chamber of the animal’s stomach it is harvested from. It is commonly sold fresh or pickled. Washed tripe, also known as dressed tripe, is boiled and bleached, giving it the white colour more commonly seen for sale. Tripe requires moist heat cookery to break down its rubber-like texture. It is most commonly used in soups and stews.
[pb_glossary id="679"]Sweetbreads[/pb_glossary]: Sweetbreads are the thymus glands of calves and mature beef. They are pinkish-white in colour. Veal or calf sweetbreads are considered a great delicacy. They are largest in size when the calf is five to six weeks old and decrease in size as the animal ages. Sweetbreads should be thoroughly soaked in cold water, then blanched so that the membrane can be removed. They then can be braised, or cooled then sliced and breaded for pan frying.
Brain: Brains are a small volume seller. They perish very quickly so are generally frozen at the plant as soon as they are harvested from the animal. They are mild in flavour and have a delicate texture. Calves brains are most commonly used. They can be prepared much the same as sweetbreads. Brain is extremely high in cholesterol.
Oxtail: Oxtail is classified as offal even though it is not an internal organ. Oxtail is mainly used for making soup to extract its rich flavours. It is more bone than meat, but the meat from the oxtail, once properly braised, is very rich in flavour.
Cheeks and head: These are not technically offal, but increasingly popular are beef and veal cheeks, while pork heads are used to make headcheese, a type of sausage consisting of the meat from the head set in a gelatin base made from the cooking liquid.
[pb_glossary id="547"]Caul fat[/pb_glossary]: Fine membrane of fat which covers the stomach of hogs, Caul fat is used for barding (wrapping or covering) lean cuts of meat, ground fillings and sausage meat.

Game Cutting

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:22:52 +0000

The term game refers to meat and poultry that are generally found in the wild. It has always filled an important role on the plates of hunters, but it is becoming more popular in the food service industry, especially the loin and leg portions. Any game meat offered for sale must be inspected, just as domesticated meats are. Wild game that can be hunted legally cannot be sold. Game meats processed for consumers are farm raised, much the same as domestic animals:

Deer, often referred to as venison, is the most common game meat. It is processed at less than two years of age, ensuring a mild flavour and tender meat. It is often processed very similar to lamb, as it is a smaller game animal.
Other large game, such as buffalo (or bison), elk, moose, and caribou, are processed much the same way as beef.
[pb_glossary id="541"]Boar[/pb_glossary], or wild pig, is processed the same way as traditional pork. It can be more difficult to cook as it is leaner and less tender than traditional pork. The loin should be prepared using dry heat, but the rest of the animal is best prepared using moist heat.

Game meats are lower in internal fat content, so cooking them requires care. During processing, the majority of the external fat cover is removed from game meats. The strong flavour often associated with game meats is predominantly found in the fat. The bone structure for game meats is identical to that of domestic animals. Most other cuts are generally processed into ground meats for burger patties and sausage.

Poultry Cuts

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:29:42 +0000

[pb_glossary id="643"]Poultry[/pb_glossary] refers to the edible flesh, with adhering bones, of any bird that is commonly used as food. Types of poultry include chickens, ducks, geese, turkey, quail, pheasant. All poultry is processed in a similar manner. It is either cooked whole or segmented in a number of ways depending on how it is to be used. All segments of small, young poultry can be prepared using dry heat cooking methods. Older birds, once they stop laying eggs, are butchered and marketed as stewing hens or boiling fowl. These birds need moist heat preparation and are ideal for pot pies, stews, and soups. All poultry should be fully cooked to at least 74°C (165°F) to eliminate the presence of salmonella. A bird can be split in half lengthwise through the backbones and keel bone, or it can be split into a front quarter and a hind quarter. The front quarter of the bird contains the breast and wing meats, while the hindquarter contains the legs. It is common to further break the poultry into segments. For maximum yield and precise processing, poultry can be segmented by cutting through the soft natural joints of the bird. The term 8-cut chicken is used to describe a chicken segmented into two drumsticks, two thighs, and both breasts split in half across the rib bone (one half may contain the wing). This procedure is always done with the bone in. These segments can be processed further to boneless skinless cuts if desired. Figure 29 shows a fully segmented frying chicken, and Table 37 lists the common chicken cuts. [caption id="attachment_102" align="aligncenter" width="392"] Figure 29. Segmented frying chicken.[/caption]

Table 37- Common chicken cuts
Cut	Retail Cuts	Restaurant Cuts
Chicken breast	Chicken breastbone in	Suprême (chicken breast with wing drumette attached)
Chicken breast boneless/skinless
Chicken breast fillets (or tenders)
Chicken leg	Chicken leg (back attached)	Chicken Ballotine (boneless leg)
Chicken drumstick
Chicken thigh (bone in)
Chicken thigh (boneless skinless)
Chicken wing	Chicken wing (whole)	Chicken wings split, tips removed
Chicken winglette (or wingette)
Chicken wing drumette
Chicken wing tip
Backs and Necks	Chicken backs and necks	Chicken ribs, backs and necks are used for stock

White Meat Cuts

White or light meat comes from the breast and wings. The breast and wings are generally separated, but a chicken breast with the drumette portion of the wing still attached is called a [pb_glossary id="677"]suprême[/pb_glossary]. Wings can be broken down into three parts: wing tip, winglette, and wing drumette (Figure 30). [caption id="attachment_103" align="aligncenter" width="500"] Figure 30. Segmented chicken wing.[/caption] The breast can also be broken down further and the tenderloins ([pb_glossary id="591"]fillets[/pb_glossary]) removed. The portion without the tenderloin can be split and pounded into a thin cutlet known as a [pb_glossary id="636"]paillard[/pb_glossary]. Figure 31 shows the chicken breast whole and with the fillets removed from the bottom portion. [caption id="attachment_104" align="aligncenter" width="434"] Figure 31a. Chicken breast whole[/caption] [caption id="attachment_105" align="aligncenter" width="490"] Figure 31b. Boneless skinless chicken breast with fillets removed.[/caption]

Dark Meat Cuts

The dark meat of poultry comes from the legs, which can be broken down into two parts: the thigh and the drumstick. In restaurants, you may occasionally find a boneless leg that has been stuffed, which is called a [pb_glossary id="537"]ballotine[/pb_glossary]. Chicken legs are split at the knee joint to separate the thigh from the drumstick. Drumsticks are usually cooked bone in, while thighs can be deboned and skinned to use in a variety of dishes, including slicing or dicing for stir-frys and similar dishes. Figure 32 shows a whole chicken leg broken down into a drumstick and boneless thigh. [caption id="attachment_106" align="aligncenter" width="385"] Figure 32a. A whole chicken leg[/caption] [caption id="attachment_107" align="aligncenter" width="380"] Figure 32b. A drumstick[/caption] [caption id="attachment_108" align="aligncenter" width="370"] Figure 32c. Chicken thigh with skin and bone[/caption] [caption id="attachment_109" align="aligncenter" width="416"] Figure 32d. skinless, boneless chicken thigh[/caption]

Summary

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:30:47 +0000

Meat and poultry continue to be a large portion of the Canadian diet. Although the composition of meat and poultry doesn’t change, the cutting and terminology for both food service and retail continues to evolve. Input from different ethnic groups and cuisines, consumer preferences, heath concerns, and ingredient costs all will have impacts on how we prepare meat and poultry, and also how we cut and process it. If you are referencing recipes and cookbooks from other parts of the globe, you may come across terminology or cuts of meat that are not mentioned here, but with a bit of research you should be able to put them into context and find a Canadian equivalent.

Activities

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:31:13 +0000

Activities

Break down primal cuts of beef, pork, lamb, and veal into sub-primals and secondary cuts
Break down whole poultry into secondary cuts

Abscess

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:16:29 +0000

A collection of pus encapsulated in the tissues underneath the skin; can be a result of injury.

Accessibility Statement

kqzheng — Thu, 04 Jul 2019 17:55:06 +0000

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Acidity

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:16:39 +0000

Substances with a pH of less than 6; the lower the pH the more acidic the substance is.

Actin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:16:48 +0000

The thinner filaments of muscle fibres that help regulate muscle contraction.

Actomyosin or myofibrillar toughness

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:16:55 +0000

The overlap of thick and thin muscle fibres which is usually overcome during the aging process at the rigor resolution phase of rigor mortis.

Adrenaline

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:04 +0000

A naturally occurring hormone found in many animals that increases blood flow to the muscles.

Aerobic

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:11 +0000

Describes organisms that require oxygen in order to grow.

Aitch bone

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:19 +0000

The outer hip extremity of the pelvic bone.

Amino acids

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:39 +0000

Organic compounds consisting of chains of molecules that are used to form proteins. There are 20 or more amino acids in the human body. In addition, eight more are called essential amino acids and must be supported by a good diet.

Anaerobic

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:47 +0000

Describes organisms that grow in environments where oxygen is not present.

Ante mortem

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:17:55 +0000

Before death, as in meat inspection.

Antibiotics

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:18:24 +0000

Substances used in the treatment of bacterial infection.

Background toughness

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:18:34 +0000

Refers to the toughness in older animals or the tougher parts of younger animals, such as shanks and shoulders, that are subject to more movement and weight distribution.

Backstrap

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:18:43 +0000

Heavy strip of collagen, yellow in colour, that forms from the top of the spine to the end of the rib cage. Most prominent in beef and lamb carcasses.

Bacteria

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:18:51 +0000

Single-celled microbes that are of the most concern to food service workers.

Ballotine

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:19:06 +0000

A stuffed boneless chicken leg.

Barding

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:19:14 +0000

A technique for cooking meats where the meat is wrapped in a layer of fat before cooking it.

Blood spots and clots

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:19:48 +0000

In carcass meats, pre-slaughter injuries, such as a horn goring (clot) or spotting in pork legs due to improper stunning and shackling techniques, resulting in delayed bleeding that cause veins to rupture in the leg muscles, creating red spots.

Bloom

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:19:55 +0000

Red colour that occurs only on young beef animals post mortem and after the carcass is cooled. When beef muscle is first cut it shows as purplish red. Once exposed to oxygen it changes to a bright cherry red after about 30 minutes and can retain that colour for up to three days depending on storage conditions.

Boar

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:20:11 +0000

A wild pig. Boar are farm raised for commercial sale.

Break joint

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:20:22 +0000

A cartilaginous area of the joint on the front shanks of lamb. As sheep age, this cartilage solidifies, so the colour of the break joint is used to identify age.

Broiler

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:20:30 +0000

A young chicken of either sex, usually less than 2 kg (4.4 lb). Also called a fryer.

BSE (bovine spongiform encephalopathy)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:21:19 +0000

A disease in beef cattle commonly known as mad cow disease.

Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:21:27 +0000

Regulatory agency responsible for the safeguarding of food, animals, and plants for human consumption.

Capon

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:21:38 +0000

A castrated male chicken.

Caul fat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:21:48 +0000

A fatty membrane covering a pig’s stomach.

Chine bone

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:21:56 +0000

Part of the backbone located between the second and thirteenth ribs and protruding into the interior chest cavity of a beef carcass.

Chitterlings

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:22:05 +0000

Pork intestines used for food.

Cholesterol

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:24:03 +0000

A naturally produced substance in the body; a cross between alcohol and fat that appears as scaly crystals, sparkling white, and soapy to the touch. Too much of the wrong food can produce additional cholesterol that can cause health concerns, such as blocked arteries.

Chop

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:24:10 +0000

A cut of meat including part of the rib.

Chronic wasting disease (CWD)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:24:31 +0000

A progressive, fatal disease of the nervous system of cervids such as mule or white-tailed deer, and elk. It is known as a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE).

Clean meat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:24:38 +0000

A new term to describe meat products that are produced without additional antibiotics and growth hormones, and that have been raised on a clean farm operation and humanely cared for and harvested.

Clostridium botulinum

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:24:46 +0000

An anaerobic microorganism (grows without air). Deadly to humans. Can occur in canned and vacuum-packed product.

Clostridium perfringens

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:29:09 +0000

An anaerobic microorganism (grows without air). Can occur in improperly prepared meats that have been left to stand for long periods of time.

Cold shortening

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:29:24 +0000

Describes the process of a smaller carcass, such as lamb, cooling too rapidly and not reaching the rigor resolution stage.

Collagen

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:29:31 +0000

A type of connective tissue in meat that dissolves when cooked with moisture and yields gelatin.

Combination cooking method

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:29:39 +0000

Cooking methods that involve both dry and moist heat, such as stewing and braising.

Connective tissue septa

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:29:59 +0000

Layer of connective tissue surrounding muscle fibres. Thin septa is found in tender cuts such as tenderloin and strip loin, and thick septa is found in shank and shoulder muscles.

Cornish hen

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:30:07 +0000

A small chicken derived from Cornish Game and Plymouth or White Rock chicken breeds.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:31:09 +0000

The human form of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).

Cross bridge

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:31:18 +0000

A bridge between the actin and myosin filaments produced by actomyosin and permanently formed after death. Only during the rigor resolution stage of death will the cross bridges begin a tearing effect, which tenderizes the carcass during the aging process.

Cross-contamination

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:31:28 +0000

Pathogens being transferred from a source to food, work surfaces, or people through contact.

Cross-linking

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:31:36 +0000

An increase in connective tissue that occurs as animals age.

Curing

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:34:43 +0000

Preserved by salting, either by the use of a wet cure (brine) or a dry cure (packing in a mixture of salt, sugar, and spices).

Cutlet

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:34:56 +0000

A relatively thin, boneless cut of meat.

Cysts

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:03 +0000

Tumours that have been sealed off from the rest of the body; can be different sizes and are often caused by various types of injury. The tissue surrounding the affected area can be made up of a tough white fibrous tissue.

Danger zone

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:12 +0000

The temperature range of 4°C to 60°C (40°F to 140°F). In this range, bacteria can multiply to enormous numbers, especially between 35°C and 40°C (95°F to 104°F).

Dark cutters

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:19 +0000

Term used to describe carcasses affected by DFD.

Dark meat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:26 +0000

Meat from highly used muscles in poultry. In birds that fly long distances, this is all of the muscles, while for those who fly in short bursts only, such as chickens and turkeys, this is found only in the legs.

Deep cleaning

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:35 +0000

A term used to describe the strip down of any food-processing operation and the super clean of all machines, floors, walls, drains, and storage units. Usually done two or three times per year.

Defrost cycle

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:35:50 +0000

Part of a commercial refrigeration cycle. Heaters are automatically activated by a preset timer to melt ice buildup in the unit. Usually activated in the early morning hours.

DFD

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:01 +0000

The abbreviation for “dark, firm, and dry.” Mainly occurring in beef animals that suffer stresses prior to slaughter. The hip muscles stay dark and dry after cutting and do not bloom.

Dressed

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:10 +0000

Defeathered, eviscerated whole birds with the head and feet removed.

Dressed carcass

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:19 +0000

Weight of an animal after all internal organs and all inedible portions are removed.

Dry aging

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:27 +0000

Hanging of carcass meats such as beef and lamb to tenderize the meat.

Dry heat cooking method

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:36 +0000

Cooking methods that use air or hot fat to cook foods, such as baking, frying, and roasting.

Duck

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:43 +0000

Domestic waterfowl with red meat and thick fat below the skin.

E. coli

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:36:56 +0000

A bacterium naturally found in the intestines of humans or other animals. During processing, the bacteria can end up in trim used for ground meats, but can also contaminate food by the use of contaminated water sources and unclean human hands.

Elastin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:05 +0000

A type of connective tissue in meats that does not dissolve when cooked. Commonly known as the backstrap.

Electrical stimulation (ES)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:12 +0000

A form of stimulation used to accelerate the normal decline of pH on mainly lamb carcasses in Canada.

Electronic probe

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:24 +0000

A probe used mainly in the hog harvesting industry as part of the grading system. The probe is inserted into the side of the carcass between the third and fourth ribs to measure meat and fat thickness.

Emincé

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:36 +0000

To cut into very thin slices.

Emu

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:44 +0000

Large flightless bird with red meat and lean flesh.

Escalope

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:37:52 +0000

A thin boneless slice of meat (scaloppine).

Fabricated cuts

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:38:05 +0000

Meat cuts that have been portioned and are ready to cook.

Fibre

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:38:13 +0000

Filaments of muscle tissue.

Fibrous tissue

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:38:23 +0000

Scar tissue from old injuries that creates a tough firm area within muscle meats.

Filet, Filet Mignon

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:39:48 +0000

Boneless tenderloin steak.

Fillet

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:39:57 +0000

Boneless chicken tenderloin.

Foodborne infection

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:07 +0000

An infection caused by food contaminated with pathogenic bacteria, parasites, and/or viruses that is ingested, causing bacterial growth in the intestines (e.g., salmonella).

Foodborne intoxication

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:14 +0000

Effects on the body produced by the consumption of harmful pathogens or substances.

Fowl / hen

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:21 +0000

A mature female chicken.

Free range

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:29 +0000

Animals, usually poultry, that are allowed to move relatively freely outdoors as they are raised for market.

Frenched

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:37 +0000

The process of cutting away fat and meat from the bone end of a rib chop or steak for esthetic presentation. The bone is scraped completely clean with a knife, leaving a white bone that is often decorated with a "chop frill" (rack of lamb chops is a classic example) or used as a "handle" for eating an especially large chop or steak

Freezer burn

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:46 +0000

Greyish-brown leathery spots on frozen food that occurs when air reaches the food’s surface and dries out the product.

Fryer

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:40:57 +0000

A young chicken of either sex, usually less than 2 kg (4.4 lb). Also called a broiler.

Gelatin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:41:17 +0000

A gelling agent derived from collagen obtained from various animal by-products.

Giblets

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:41:31 +0000

The collective term for edible poultry viscera, such as gizzards, hearts, and livers.

Gizzard

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:41:41 +0000

Organ found in the digestive tract of birds, filled with stone or grit used for grinding up food.

Glands

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:41:57 +0000

Filters that collect and discard bad and damaged cells from the blood. Larger glands that are visible to the meat cutter or cook are removed.

Glandular meat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:07 +0000

Meats from internal organs or glands that contain no muscle tissue, such as liver, kidney, and sweetbreads.

Glycogen

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:18 +0000

A polysaccharide (sugar) naturally occurring in the blood.

Grading

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:28 +0000

A system to define the quality and yield of meat, carried out voluntarily while inspection is mandatory.

Growth hormones

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:40 +0000

Hormones used to increase lean muscle on farm animals produced for the food chain. Only legal for beef production in Canada.

Guinea fowl

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:49 +0000

A type of domestic poultry related to the pheasant.

Hare

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:42:59 +0000

Small mammal that is related to rabbits but is usually larger and lives above the ground.

Hemoglobin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:43:07 +0000

A protein that produces the pigment or colour of the blood.

High-density lipoprotein (HDL)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:43:30 +0000

“Good” cholesterol. Takes cholesterol back to the liver for processing.

Humidity

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:44:39 +0000

The measure of moisture content of the air. When air is completely saturated with moisture, the humidity is 100%. Meat coolers have a preset humidity of 75% to 80% to ensure that carcass meats retain moisture.

Inspection stamp

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:44:47 +0000

Proof of inspection that the harvested animal is fit for human consumption.

Intramuscular fat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:05 +0000

Fat that appears as a pattern of wavy white lines (easy to see in a AAA grade beef ribeye muscle), commonly known as marbling.

Lactic acid

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:13 +0000

A natural acid that develops in muscle after exercise or after death (post mortem). Lactic acid development causes the pH levels of a beef carcass to drop from near neutral (7) to 5.6 to 5.2, becoming more acidic. Thus it acts as a preservative until the carcass temperature drops to 4°C (40°F).

Larding

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:24 +0000

The process of inserting strips of fat into lean meats using a larding needle to prevent meat from drying out.

Listeria monocytogenes

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:32 +0000

Bacteria found in food- and meat-processing operations that are unclean. Can appear in floor drains and can easily grow in temperatures ranging from 4°C to 37°C (40°F to 100°F). Can be fatal to humans.

London broil

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:42 +0000

Flank steak or other cut of beef broiled rare and cut in thin slices.

Low-density lipoprotein (LDL)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:45:57 +0000

“Bad” cholesterol. Carries cholesterol throughout the bloodstream to various parts of the body.

Lymph nodes

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:10 +0000

Secondary organ of the lymphatic system, which helps to maintain fluid balance in the body. Inspectors examine the lymph nodes at the base of the tongue during the slaughter process to help determine the general health of the animal.

Marbling

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:18 +0000

The fat deposited within muscle tissue.

Marinated

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:26 +0000

Food that is soaked in a seasoned liquid to tenderize it.

Meat inspection

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:33 +0000

Process carried out at both provincial and federal levels to ensure all animals harvested for the Canadian and international food chains are healthy and safe to eat. Animals are inspected before and after death.

Medallion

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:42 +0000

Round slice of meat, fowl, fish, or crustacean, served hot or cold.

Metmyoglobin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:46:54 +0000

Oxidized form of the protein myoglobin, which is found in meat and contributes to its colour. Responsible for the browning of meat after cutting. Also occurs in a different form in the hip muscles of beef, where rainbow-like colours appear from the reflection of light.

Mignonette

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:47:16 +0000

A small cut or medallion of meat.

Moist heat cooking method

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:47:24 +0000

Cooking method that uses liquid or steam to cook foods, such as boiling, poaching, and steaming.

Moulds

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:47:40 +0000

Multicellular microorganisms that can exist at almost any temperature range and condition. They appear as fuzzy or powdery patches. Meats, fruits, breads, and cheeses are susceptible to moulds.

Muscle meat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:47:50 +0000

Variety meats that contain muscle tissue, such as tripe, heart, and tongue.

Myofibrils

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:09 +0000

Muscle fibres composed of bundles of thick and thin filaments arranged in a repeating pattern.

Myoglobin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:19 +0000

One of two proteins producing the colour or pigment of the muscles. Myoglobin quantity varies with species, age, sex, muscle, and physical activity of muscle.

Myosin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:27 +0000

The thicker filaments of muscle fibre protein that contract muscles.

Noisette

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:35 +0000

A small, usually round portion of meat cut from the rib or loin.

Offal

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:44 +0000

All edible internal organs that can be processed from animals slaughtered for human consumption. Also known as variety meats or organ meats.

Organic

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:51 +0000

Term given to food that is raised without various chemicals, growth enhancers, or certain antibiotics.

Ostrich

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:49:59 +0000

Large flightless bird with red meat and lean flesh.

Paillard

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:06 +0000

A boneless chicken breast that has been pounded flat.

Partridge

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:13 +0000

Medium-sized birds, sized between the larger pheasants and the smaller quails. Partridges are native to Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East.

Permeable

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:21 +0000

A product such as packaging film that still allows air to pass through.

pH

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:29 +0000

Potential hydrogen; the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. A scale is used to measure the level of pH in meat carcasses [0 = acidic or dry - 7 is neutral - 14 = alkaline or moist). A living unstressed animal would indicate a 6.5 pH prior to death.

Pheasant

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:38 +0000

A game bird similar in size to chickens, although leaner.

Popliteal gland

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:50:47 +0000

Secondary organ of the lymphatic system found in the leg, imbedded in a fat pocket.

Post mortem

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:51:11 +0000

After death, as in meat inspection.

Poultry

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:51:49 +0000

Any of a variety of birds raised commercially for food.

Poussin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:51:56 +0000

A very small young chicken, usually less than 500 g (1 lb).

Prefemoral gland

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:52:05 +0000

Secondary organ of the lymphatic system found in the leg.

Pre-rigor

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:52:19 +0000

The first stage of rigor mortis, when the muscle fibres begin to shorten.

Prescapular gland

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:52:27 +0000

Secondary organ of the lymphatic system found in the shoulder.

Pre-slaughter stress syndrome (PSS)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:52:45 +0000

Chemical changes in an animal's body due to stress prior to harvest that cause discolouration in the meat after harvest.

Primal cut

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:52:53 +0000

One of the primary divisions of meat carcasses as they are broken down into smaller cuts.

Proteins

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:00 +0000

Elements in plant or animal tissue supplying essential amino acids to the body.

PSE

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:07 +0000

The abbreviation for “pale, soft, and exudative.” The condition mainly occurs in hogs that suffer stresses prior to slaughter. Muscle meat in the loin area can become paler, wet, and sloppy and leak juices. A sudden increase in lactic acid pre-slaughter that causes a rapid decline in pH post-slaughter.

Quail

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:16 +0000

Small game bird, usually between 100 and 250 g (3 and 8 oz.) dressed.

Ratites

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:23 +0000

A category of flightless birds that includes ostrich and emu.

Reportable disease

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:32 +0000

A disease that can cause great public concern, and therefore must be reported to authorities.

Ribs

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:39 +0000

Bones that cover the chest area of most animals, protecting the internal organs.

Rigor maximum

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:47 +0000

The second stage of rigor mortis, when muscle fibres reach the maximum shortening phase resulting in stiff muscles.

Rigor mortis

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:53:54 +0000

Latin for “the stiffness of death.” There are three stages to rigor mortis.

Rigor resolution

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:01 +0000

The third and final stage of rigor mortis, when stiff muscles begin to extend out again almost to their original length, beginning the aging or tenderization process commonly occurring with beef animals.

Roaster

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:09 +0000

Young chicken of either sex usually over 2.2 kg (5 lb).

Roller brand

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:15 +0000

A grade stamp that has been rolled the length of the carcass.

Rooster

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:21 +0000

A mature male chicken; also known as a cock.

Salmonella

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:29 +0000

Pathogen common in the internal cavity of chickens and turkeys that can often be found in uncooked poultry and egg products.

Sanitizers

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:35 +0000

Cleaning agents used in the final stage of a food-processing cleaning program, after scrubbing with soap and water and rinsing has been completed, to kill microorganisms. Sanitizers can be iodine, ammonia, chlorine, or sodium hypochlorite. The most common ones used today are quaternary ammonia and hydrogen peroxide diluted to so many parts per million and regulated by local health departments.

Sarcomere

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:43 +0000

One unit of a bundle of muscle fibres, also called the "little muscle."

Scaloppine

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:49 +0000

Thin, flattened slices of veal leg, usually cooked by sautéing.

Scrapie

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:54:58 +0000

A fatal disease that affects the central nervous system of sheep and goats. Also known as transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE).

Secondary cut

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:12 +0000

Specific cuts of meat, usually referred to by name in recipes or menu items, and part of a primal cut. For example, the inside round is a secondary cut of the beef hip primal.

Silverskin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:19 +0000

A tough connective tissue surrounding muscle; the pearlescent membrane found on certain cuts of meat that is removed before cooking to prevent curling.

Smoked

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:26 +0000

Preserved or flavoured by applying smoke to meats, usually after curing. Cold smoking is done at lower temperatures so as not to cook the protein in the meat; hot smoking is done at higher temperatures to cook the protein and smoke it at the same time.

Solubility

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:33 +0000

The degree to which a substance can be dissolved in water.

Specified risk materials (SRMs)

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:41 +0000

Parts removed from beef animals over 30 months old to lessen the risk of BSE. Some of the parts removed are the head, brain, part of the intestines, and most of the backbone.

Squab

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:48 +0000

A young pigeon.

Staphylococcus

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:55:54 +0000

An aerobic organism (needs air to grow) that causes food poisoning by releasing toxins into food. The most common carrier is the human body; found particularly on skin abrasions and in wounds, infected sinuses, pimples, and the nose. Raw poultry is also known to be a carrier.

Steak

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:02 +0000

A relatively thick, boneless cut of meat.

Sub-primal cut

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:08 +0000

A smaller section of a primal cut that yields further secondary cuts.

Sub-therapeutic hormones

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:16 +0000

See growth hormones.

Suprême

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:23 +0000

Breast of poultry with the wing bone attached.

Sweet pickle

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:42 +0000

A term used to describe a meat product that has been brined but not smoked.

Sweetbreads

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:50 +0000

The thymus gland of calves and other young animals such as lamb.

Tenderization

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:56:56 +0000

The process of meats becoming tender through natural processes like aging or marinating or mechanical processes like pounding or using a specialized machine.

Tendon

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:57:03 +0000

Very heavy collagen that forms at the end of muscle groups, such as a beef shank, which joins a muscle group to a bone at or near the exterior of a bone joint.

Tournedo

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:57:16 +0000

A cut of beef tenderloin with a small diameter, usually cut from the tail end.

Trichinosis

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:57:23 +0000

Parasitic nematodes, intestinal worms, and roundworms that enter the body when meat containing the Trichinella cysts is eaten. For humans, undercooked or raw pork and raw dry cured pork products, such as pork salami, have been the meat most commonly responsible for transmitting the parasite. The disease is rare in Canada.

Triglycerides

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:57:30 +0000

A lipid (fat) composed of glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.

Sample Page

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:12 +0000

Authors

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:12 +0000

Cover

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:12 +0000

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:13 +0000

About

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:13 +0000

Book Info

acoolidge — Thu, 27 Aug 2015 18:43:42 +0000

Tripe

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:57:41 +0000

A type of variety meat (muscle meat) from the stomachs of various animals.

Tropomyosin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:58:29 +0000

A chemical component of actin that assists in regulating muscle contraction (movement).

Troponin

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:58:38 +0000

A chemical component of actin that assists in regulating muscle contraction (movement).

Twitch fibres

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:58:45 +0000

Muscle fibres in different working parts of the animal, such as different muscle groups and internal organs, that move at different speeds depending on the muscle action required.

Typhoid fever

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:58:54 +0000

A life-threatening illness caused by salmonella bacteria.

Vacuum packaging

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:01 +0000

Process of placing food into plastic bags and removing air using a pump to create an oxygen-free environment.

Variety meats

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:07 +0000

A group of meats consisting of organs, glands, and other meats that don’t form part of the dressed carcass of the animal; offal.

Venison

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:18 +0000

Meat from any of the species of the deer family, including elk.

Viruses

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:25 +0000

The smallest form of microorganisms; they grow and reproduce only inside living cells. Hepatitis is a virus that can cause a foodborne infection.

Vitamins

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:32 +0000

Organic compounds essential to the diet.

Wet aging

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:38 +0000

Vacuum-packaged carcass primal and sub-primal sections for further and longer periods of aging.

White meat

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:45 +0000

Meat from the breast and wing muscles of birds that fly in short bursts, such as chickens and turkeys.

Yeasts

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 21:59:52 +0000

Single-celled organisms that can be identified by slimy or powdery film or cloudy sediment in liquids. They most often grow on fruit, jam, processed meats, cottage cheese, and yogurt.

Yield grading

kqzheng — Wed, 03 Jul 2019 22:00:02 +0000

A grading system that indicates how much usable meat a carcass has in proportion to fat.

Hello world!

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 21:31:12 +0000

Welcome to BC Open Textbooks. This is your first post. Edit or delete it, then start blogging!

Meat Science and Nutrition

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Buy

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Access Denied

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Inspection and Grading of Meats and Poultry

acoolidge — Fri, 21 Aug 2015 22:41:22 +0000

Cutting and Processing Meats

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H5P listing

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