{"id":326,"date":"2019-12-08T22:36:30","date_gmt":"2019-12-09T03:36:30","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/chapter\/6-12-blood-coagulation-modifiers\/"},"modified":"2023-08-15T14:07:35","modified_gmt":"2023-08-15T18:07:35","slug":"6-12-blood-coagulation-modifiers","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/chapter\/6-12-blood-coagulation-modifiers\/","title":{"raw":"6.12 Blood Coagulation Modifiers","rendered":"6.12 Blood Coagulation Modifiers"},"content":{"raw":"<h1>Blood Coagulation Modifiers<\/h1>\r\nThis section discusses medications that affect blood coagulation, and includes several types of medications, including anticoagulants, anti-platelets, and thrombolytics, as well as their associated reversal agents.\r\n\r\n<strong>[pb_glossary id=\"797\"]Anticoagulants[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> prevent the formation of a clot by inhibiting certain types of clotting factors. Anticoagulants include the following drug classes: heparins or unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), warfarin (Coumadin), selective factor Xa inhibitors (Rivaroxaban), and direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran). Anti-platelets include Aspirin and other aggregation inhibitors such as Clopidogrel, and thrombolytics include Alteplase (tPA). These medications create a high risk of bleeding.\r\n\r\nThe most common anticoagulant errors in acute hospital settings are administration mistakes, including incorrect dosage calculation and infusion rates. The Health Research and Educational Trust focuses on reducing harm related to HAMs by 50% and recommends the following interventions to achieve this goal:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Educate staff based on evidence and best practices.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use standardized order sets and protocols.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Perform medication reconciliation at all transitions.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nSpecific interventions regarding anticoagulant therapy include standardization of protocols for withholding and restarting warfarin perioperatively, as well as pharmacists on rounds to provide decision support for staff administering HAMs and to reduce prescribing errors, pharmacist monitoring of anticoagulants, and pharmacist notification when rescue medications are given.[footnote]Anderson, P. &amp; Townsend, T. (2015) Preventing high-alert medication errors in hospital patients. <em>Nurse Today, 10<\/em>(5). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.americannursetoday.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/ant5-CE-421.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.americannursetoday.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/ant5-CE-421.pdf<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nSince 1954, warfarin has been a standard but hazardous treatment for preventing blood clots. Warfarin requires close laboratory monitoring and individual dose adjustments based on PT and INR lab results. When the pharmaceutical industry began marketing modern replacements for warfarin, including dabigatran (Pradaxa), rivaroxaban (Xarelto), and apixaban (Eliquis), they designed them to be easier to use than warfarin because no laboratory monitoring was required, but not necessarily safer. It is vital for nurses to provide thorough client and caregiver education for clients prescribed anticoagulants at home. Suggested client education topics are included for each type of medication below.\r\n<h2>Heparin Sodium<\/h2>\r\nHeparin sodium is an anticoagulant that can be injected or used intravenously and is formulated in several dosages. (See Figure 6.12.)[footnote]\"<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heparin_Sodium_sample.jpg\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Heparin Sodium sample.jpg\"<\/a> by<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:LHcheM\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"> LHcheM<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> and \"Heparin in Dextrose Injection\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cvtc.edu\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Chippewa Valley Technical College<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 4.0<\/a>[\/footnote] Because heparin is a high-alert medication, hospitals use several processes for storing and labeling it to help prevent errors. As nurses, we must ensure safety by following the appropriate steps when choosing which vial to draw up medication from, and follow hospital protocols during administration.\u00a0 Heparin is given by injection or intravenously. Most hospitals have weight-based protocols for IV heparin administration that titrate a client's dosage to be within a therapeutic range based on the results of a lab test called <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"792\"]Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>. PTT is a blood test that looks at how long it takes for blood to clot. Clients receiving heparin subcutaneous injections to prevent DVTs (deep vein thrombosis) do not require PTT monitoring.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_321\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"740\"]<img class=\"wp-image-321 size-full\" title=\"&quot;Heparin Sodium sample.jpg&quot; by LHcheM is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 and &quot;Untitled&quot; by Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image.png\" alt=\"A vial of Heparin Sodium with addition image of ingredients label.\" width=\"740\" height=\"336\" \/> Figure 6.12 Heparin comes in many dosages, and overdose can be deadly, so it is important for the nurse to use safeguards to prevent potential medication errors[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nHeparin inhibits the activated coagulation factors involved in the clotting sequence, particularly Xa and IIa. Heparin also prevents the formation of a stable fibrin clot by inhibiting the activation of the fibrin stabilizing factor. Heparin does not have fibrinolytic activity; therefore, it will not break down existing clots.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nIV heparin is commonly indicated for the treatment of deep venous thromboembolism (DVT) or pulmonary embolism. It is also indicated for use during an acute myocardial infarction. Subcutaneous heparin is commonly indicated to prevent DVT or embolization caused by atrial fibrillation. Heparin IV flushes (\u201cHep-Locks\u201d) are used to maintain the patency of central IV lines.\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nWhen bleeding requires the reversal of heparinization, the drug protamine sulfate is given by a slow infusion to neutralize heparin sodium and reverse the heparin action.\r\n\r\nA higher incidence of bleeding has been reported in clients over 60 years of age, especially women.\r\n\r\nFatal hemorrhages have occurred due to medication errors. Carefully examine all heparin products to confirm the correct dose prior to the administration of the drug.\r\n\r\nIV heparin therapy requires close monitoring of frequent partial thromboplastin time (PTT) results to ensure dosage is in therapeutic range and to reduce the risk of overdose with associated bleeding. Dosage is considered adequate when the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) is 1.5 to 2 times the normal or when the whole blood clotting time is elevated approximately 2.5 to 3 times the control value.\r\n\r\nThis drug is contraindicated in clients with a history of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) and Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia and Thrombosis (HITT). HIT is a condition where platelets drop 30% or more below a client's baseline after heparin is administered and can lead to HITT where thrombi are formed.\r\n\r\nUse with caution with medication that affects the coagulation cascade due to additive effects that increase the risk of bleeding. When a client is receiving IV heparin therapy to treat a blood clot, it may be overlapped with oral warfarin to establish anticoagulation therapy after discharge. See more information about this process under the \u201cWarfarin\u201d section.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nThere is a high risk of bleeding that can lead to hemorrhaging. Notify prescribing provider immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising, or sudden changes in vital signs that indicate internal bleeding, such as decreasing blood pressure with an associated increase in heart rate.\r\n\r\nSome clients may develop Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) or Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia and Thrombosis (HITT); in these instances, heparin should be discontinued immediately.\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nClients should notify health care staff immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising, and remind physicians and dentists that they are receiving heparin before any surgery or invasive procedure is scheduled.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote] Clients should avoid medications containing aspirin or NSAIDS.\u00a0 Clients should avoid IM injections, and use a soft toothbrush and electric razor, as precautions against causing bleeding.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH)<\/h2>\r\nEnoxaparin (Lovenox) is a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) that is supplied in a prefilled syringe (see Figure 6.12a).[footnote]\"<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/stux-12364\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">stux<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/cc0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC0<\/a>[\/footnote]\u00a0LMWH heparin formulations do not require lab monitoring.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"557\"]<img title=\"&quot;syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059&quot; by stux is licensed under CC0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image4-2.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"557\" height=\"371\" \/> Figure 6.12a Enoxaparin in a prefilled syringe[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nEnoxaparin is a low molecular weight heparin, which has antithrombotic properties with a higher ratio of anti-Factor Xa to anti-Factor IIa activity compared to heparin.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nIt is indicated for the prevention and treatment of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which may lead to pulmonary embolism (PE). It is also used in combination with aspirin for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction.\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nEnoxaparin is administered subcutaneously and preferably in the abdomen for best absorption.\r\n\r\nSafety and effectiveness have not been established in pediatric clients. The risk of bleeding increases with age, especially if used concurrently with antiplatelet medications.\r\n\r\nUse with caution in clients with renal impairment; risk of bleeding is increased. A dosage adjustment is recommended for clients with severe renal impairment.\r\n\r\nOverdoses can be neutralized with a slow IV infusion of protamine sulfate.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nBlack Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis.\r\n\r\nThere is a risk of bleeding and hemorrhaging, especially following percutaneous coronary revascularization procedures or with concurrent medication conditions such as recent GI ulcer. It may cause Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) or Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia with Thrombosis (HITT).[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote]\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nNotify health care staff immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising. Remind physicians and dentists that they are receiving heparin before any surgery or invasive procedure is scheduled.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote] Clients should avoid medications containing aspirin or NSAIDS.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Warfarin<\/h2>\r\nWarfarin (Coumadin) is an oral anticoagulant formulated in various strengths in different colors to help prevent errors when patients self-administer different dosages at home (see Figure 6.12b[footnote]\"<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User:Gonegonegone\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Gonegonegone<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>[\/footnote]). Close monitoring of <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"793\"]prothrombin time (PT)<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">[\/pb_glossary]<\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">or <strong>[pb_glossary id=\"794\"]<\/strong><\/span><strong>international normalized ratio (INR)<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"><strong>[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em; text-align: initial;\">is required.<\/span>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"452\"]<img title=\"&quot;Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg&quot; by Gonegonegone is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image5-1.png\" alt=\"Three piles of Warafin pills that are different colours.\" width=\"452\" height=\"280\" \/> Figure 6.12b Warfarin is an oral pill with various strengths in different colors[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nWarfarin acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, which include Factors II, VII, IX, and X and the anticoagulant proteins C and S.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nWarfarin is indicated for the following:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Prophylaxis and treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism (PE).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic complications associated with atrial fibrillation (AF) and\/or cardiac valve replacement.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reduction in the risk of death, recurrent myocardial infarction (MI), and thromboembolic events such as stroke or systemic embolization after myocardial infarction.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nWarfarin is contraindicated in pregnant women except for those with mechanical heart valves; it can cause fetal harm.\r\n\r\nVitamin K is the reversal agent.\u00a0 Fresh frozen plasma may be considered if the requirement to reverse the effects of warfarin sodium is urgent.\r\n\r\nClose monitoring of prothrombin time (PT) or international normalized ratio (INR) is required. Therapeutic INR ranges from 2.0 to 3.5, depending on the indication.\r\n\r\nIn hospitalized clients receiving heparin therapy, there is often a period of overlap where the client is prescribed both IV heparin and warfarin until the INR reaches therapeutic range. At that point, the IV heparin is discontinued.\r\n\r\nWarfarin has significant interactions with many medications; read drug label information before administering.\r\n\r\nWarfarin sodium is contraindicated in clients with many conditions, including, but not limited to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Hemorrhagic tendencies or blood dyscrasias<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Recent or contemplated surgery of the central nervous system or eye, or traumatic surgery resulting in large open surfaces<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nBleeding tendencies associated with:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Active ulceration or overt bleeding of the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, or respiratory tracts<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Central nervous system hemorrhage<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cerebral aneurysms and dissecting aorta<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pericarditis and pericardial effusions<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Bacterial endocarditis<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Black Box Warnings: Warfarin can cause major or fatal bleeding. Perform regular monitoring of INR in all treated clients. Drugs, dietary changes, and other factors affect INR levels achieved with warfarin therapy. Instruct clients about prevention measures to minimize risk of bleeding and to report signs and symptoms of bleeding. Warfarin can cause acute kidney injury and bleeding risks are increased in clients with liver disease.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Client Teaching and Education<\/h3>\r\nAdvise clients to:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Avoid alcohol, cranberries, and grapefruit as they increase the effect of warfarin and the risk of bleeding.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Strictly adhere to the prescribed dosage schedule.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Follow INR monitoring guidelines as provided by the prescriber.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Avoid any activity or sport that may result in traumatic injury.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tell their provider if they experience frequent falls, since warfarin can increase their risk for bleeding in the brain.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Eat a normal, balanced diet, including green, leafy vegetables, to maintain a consistent intake of vitamin K.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tell all health care professionals and dentists that they are taking warfarin, especially before surgery or dental procedures.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Use electric razors instead of straight razors.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Carry identification stating that they are taking warfarin.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Notify their provider immediately if any unusual bleeding or symptoms occur, such as pain, swelling or discomfort, prolonged bleeding from cuts, increased menstrual flow or vaginal bleeding, nosebleeds, bleeding of gums from brushing, unusual bleeding or bruising, red or dark brown urine, red or tar black stools, headache, dizziness, or weakness.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote]<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\"><img class=\"alignright wp-image-50\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1.png\" alt=\"Image of lightbulb in a circle\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" \/>\r\n<h2>Clinical Reasoning and Decision-Making Activity 6.12<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nA client who was treated in the hospital for DVT in his left leg has been prescribed warfarin.\r\n\r\n1. The client asks, \u201cWill the warfarin dissolve the clot in my leg?\u201d What is the nurse\u2019s best response?\r\n\r\nThe nurse plans to assess the client's lab work before administering the warfarin.\r\n\r\n2. What blood test(s) are important to monitor for clients taking warfarin, and what is the therapeutic range?\r\n\r\nThe nurse knows that the client will need to monitor his diet when taking warfarin.\r\n\r\n3. What dietary instructions should be provided to the client?\r\n\r\nThe nurse plans to provide client education regarding this newly prescribed medication.\r\n\r\n4. Outline the topics to cover with this high-risk medication.\r\n\r\n5. What is the reversal agent for warfarin?\r\n\r\nNote: Answers to these activities can be found in the \"<a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/chapter\/chapter-6-answer-key\/\">Answer Key<\/a>\" sections at the end of the book.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2>Rivaroxaban<\/h2>\r\nRivaroxaban (Xarelto) is a selective Xa inhibitor.\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nRivaroxaban is a selective inhibitor of factor Xa and indirectly inhibits platelet aggregation induced by thrombin.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nRivaroxaban is indicated for prevention or treatment of DVT and PE. In combination with aspirin, it is indicated to reduce the risk of major cardiovascular events such as cardiovascular (CV) death, myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke, and in clients with chronic coronary artery disease (CAD) or peripheral artery disease (PAD).\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nFor overdose, activated charcoal can be used to reduce absorption and Andexxa is a reversal agent.\r\n\r\nAvoid in clients with moderate to severe liver impairment. Report any unusual bleeding or bruising.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nBlack Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with rivaroxaban and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis.\r\n\r\nRisk of bleeding can be fatal.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote]\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nClients should report any signs of unusual bleeding or bruising to the healthcare provider.\u00a0 The client should also notify the provider of all prescriptions, OTC medications, vitamins, and herbal products.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Dabigatran<\/h2>\r\nDabigatran (Pradaxa) is a direct-acting thrombin inhibitor.\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nDabigatran is a competitive, direct thrombin inhibitor. Because thrombin enables the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin during the coagulation cascade, its inhibition prevents the development of a thrombus.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nThis drug is used to prevent or treat deep vein thromboses (DVT) or pulmonary emboli (PE).\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nOverdose: Idarucizumab, a specific reversal agent, is available for urgent care or emergency operation client care.\r\n\r\nSafety and effectiveness in pediatric clients have not been established.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nBlack Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with dabigatran and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis<strong>.<\/strong>\r\n\r\nRisk of bleeding can be fatal.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote]\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nClients should report any signs of unusual bleeding or bruising to the healthcare provider.\u00a0 Additionally, dabigatran bottles should be disposed of four months after opening. The client should also notify the provider of all prescriptions, OTC medications, vitamins, and herbal products.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Alteplase (tPA)<\/h2>\r\nAlteplase (tPA) is a thrombolytic used to break up clots. It has a very short half-life of 5 minutes so it can open a clogged artery rapidly. It is often given with heparin to prevent reocclusion of the affected blood vessel. There is also a smaller dosage form that is used to flush clogged IV or arterial lines.[footnote]McCuistion, L., Vuljoin-DiMaggio, K., Winton, M, &amp; Yeager, J. (2018). <em>Pharmacology: A patient-centered nursing process approach.<\/em> pp. 443-454. Elsevier.[\/footnote]\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nAlteplase binds to fibrin in a thrombus and converts the entrapped plasminogen to plasmin, thus breaking down the clot.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nAlteplase is indicated for the acute treatment of myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or massive pulmonary embolism (PE).\u00a0 It is also used to clear central lines such as a peripherally inserted central line catheter (PICC). It is important to understand that Alteplase is considered a \"clot buster\" whereas previous anti-platelet drugs do not clot-bust but rather make them less sticky.\u00a0 This make Alteplase very much more risky when administering. Since it cannot differentiate between what clot you want to dissolve, it basically floats through the blood destroying all clots.\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nThe drug is contraindicated in situations in which the risk of significant bleeding is greater than the potential benefit such as:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Active internal or intracranial bleeding<\/li>\r\n \t<li>History of recent stroke<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Recent (within 3 months) intracranial or intraspinal surgery or serious head trauma<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Presence of intracranial conditions that may increase the risk of bleeding (e.g., some neoplasms, arteriovenous malformations, or aneurysms)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Current severe uncontrolled hypertension<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nSignificant post-administration monitoring is performed due to the risk of life-threatening bleeding.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nThis drug can cause significant, sometimes fatal, internal or external bleeding, especially at arterial and venous puncture sites. Avoid intramuscular injections and perform venipunctures carefully and only as required. It can increase the risk of thrombo-embolic events in clients with high likelihood of left heart thrombus, such as clients with atrial fibrillation.\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nClients must institute bleeding precautions to prevent complications of therapy.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Antiplatelets<\/h2>\r\nAcetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and clopidogrel (Plavix) are antiplatelet medications.\r\n\r\nDuring an active myocardial infarction (heart attack), chewable aspirins are used due to their rapid absorption (see Figure 6.12c[footnote]\"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/jeepersmedia\/15563763373\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Bayer Aspirin Low Dose<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/jeepersmedia\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Mike Mozart<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>[\/footnote]).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"483\"]<img title=\"&quot;Bayer Aspirin Low Dose&quot; by Mike Mozart is licensed under CC BY 2.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image6-2.png\" alt=\"Bayer brand aspirin package.\" width=\"483\" height=\"303\" \/> Figure 6.12c Chewable aspirin are used for clients experiencing a MI[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\r\nAspirin inhibits platelet activation and aggregation.\r\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\r\nAspirin is indicated in clients with established peripheral arterial disease or a history of recent myocardial infarction (MI) or stroke to reduce the rate of MI and stroke. It is also indicated to reduce the rate of myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke in clients with ST-elevation and non\u2013ST-segment elevation ACS.\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\r\nIt is important to remember that the effects of these medications last the life of the platelet (7-10 days), so aspirin will need to be withheld for several days before surgery or certain procedures to prevent excessive bleeding. In elderly clients, there is an increased risk of bleeding events with concurrent use of Clopidogrel plus aspirin. Aspirin is contraindicated in children under the age of 12 with flu-like symptoms due to the risk of Reye\u2019s syndrome.\r\n\r\nOverdose is irreversible.\r\n\r\nClopidogrel (Plavix) is metabolized to its active metabolite by CYP2C19. Concomitant use of drugs that inhibit the activity of this enzyme results in reduced plasma concentrations of the active metabolite of Clopidogrel and a reduction in platelet inhibition. This drug is often seen after acute myocardial infarctions (MI) when an angioplasty has been performed and a stent is placed in the heart. The stent is a high risk for clots to form so Clopidogrel helps prevent clot aggregating on the site.\r\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\r\nIncreased risk of bleeding.\r\n\r\nBlack Box Warning: Reduced effectiveness for clients referred to as \u201cCYP2C19 poor metabolizers.\u201d\r\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\r\nClients should report tinnitus, unusual bleeding of the gums, bruising, or blood in the stool to the healthcare provider immediately.\u00a0 While on antiplatelet therapy, clients should avoid alcohol to prevent gastric irritation.\u00a0 Additionally, clients should avoid NSAIDs while receiving antiplatelet therapy.[footnote]uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a>[\/footnote]\r\n<h1>Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel Medication Card<\/h1>\r\nNow let's take a closer look at the medication card for acetylsalicylic acid and clopidogrel in Table 6.12.[footnote]This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>. [\/footnote] Because information about medication is constantly changing, nurses should always consult evidence-based resources to review current recommendations before administering specific medication.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Medication Card 6.12.1: Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Class: <\/strong>Blood Coagulation Modifiers (Antiplatelet)\r\n\r\n<strong>Prototypes: <\/strong>Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) and Clopidogrel (Plavix) Two common ones used in Cardiac patients\r\n\r\n<strong>Mechanism: <\/strong>ASA inhibits platelet activation and aggregation. Plavix is metabolized to its active metabolite by CYP2C19. Concomitant use of drugs that inhibit the activity of this enzyme results in reduced plasma concentrations of the active metabolite of Plavix and a reduction in platelet inhibition\r\n<h3>Therapeutic Effects<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Inhibits platelet development and stickiness<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Plavix also acts on enzyme to reduce plasma concentrations to increase reduction of platelets<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Allow blood flow through blood vessels<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Prevents platelets from sticking and blocking areas within the blood vessel to keep open blood flow and oxygenation to occur<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Administration<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>PO pills given-dose depends on patient and medical reason as per MD<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Administer with food to avoid upset and bleeding GI<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Monitor for signs of bleeding or bruising<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Overdose is irreversible<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Avoid eating or drinking grapefruit juice<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Indications<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>MI<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Stroke<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Post angioplasty and stent insertion<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Unstable Angina<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Contraindications<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Children under 12 can get flu like symptoms due to risk of Reye\u2019s Syndrome<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Avoid alcohol to prevent gastric irritation and GI bleed<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Avoid NSAIDS<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Side Effects<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Tinnitus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Unusual bleeding of gums<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Bruising<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Blood in stool<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>S<\/strong><strong>AFETY<\/strong><strong>:<\/strong>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Bleeding risk<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Note that some MD prescribe Plavix and ASA at the same time<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Contact 911<\/strong> if sudden vision changes, confusion, weakness, arm pain or sweating, trouble speaking<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Nursing Considerations<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>If person needs surgery must hold these drugs for 7- 10 days (life of a platelet) to prevent bleeding in surgery<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding including heart rate elevation, low urine output and hypotension<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Check abdomen for signs of bruising or bleeding\/enlargement and turn patient to side to assess peritoneal area for bleeding\/bruising<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>","rendered":"<h1>Blood Coagulation Modifiers<\/h1>\n<p>This section discusses medications that affect blood coagulation, and includes several types of medications, including anticoagulants, anti-platelets, and thrombolytics, as well as their associated reversal agents.<\/p>\n<p><strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_326_797\">Anticoagulants<\/a><\/strong> prevent the formation of a clot by inhibiting certain types of clotting factors. Anticoagulants include the following drug classes: heparins or unfractionated heparin and low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), warfarin (Coumadin), selective factor Xa inhibitors (Rivaroxaban), and direct thrombin inhibitors (dabigatran). Anti-platelets include Aspirin and other aggregation inhibitors such as Clopidogrel, and thrombolytics include Alteplase (tPA). These medications create a high risk of bleeding.<\/p>\n<p>The most common anticoagulant errors in acute hospital settings are administration mistakes, including incorrect dosage calculation and infusion rates. The Health Research and Educational Trust focuses on reducing harm related to HAMs by 50% and recommends the following interventions to achieve this goal:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Educate staff based on evidence and best practices.<\/li>\n<li>Use standardized order sets and protocols.<\/li>\n<li>Perform medication reconciliation at all transitions.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Specific interventions regarding anticoagulant therapy include standardization of protocols for withholding and restarting warfarin perioperatively, as well as pharmacists on rounds to provide decision support for staff administering HAMs and to reduce prescribing errors, pharmacist monitoring of anticoagulants, and pharmacist notification when rescue medications are given.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Anderson, P. &amp; Townsend, T. (2015) Preventing high-alert medication errors in hospital patients. Nurse Today, 10(5). https:\/\/www.americannursetoday.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/ant5-CE-421.pdf\" id=\"return-footnote-326-1\" href=\"#footnote-326-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Since 1954, warfarin has been a standard but hazardous treatment for preventing blood clots. Warfarin requires close laboratory monitoring and individual dose adjustments based on PT and INR lab results. When the pharmaceutical industry began marketing modern replacements for warfarin, including dabigatran (Pradaxa), rivaroxaban (Xarelto), and apixaban (Eliquis), they designed them to be easier to use than warfarin because no laboratory monitoring was required, but not necessarily safer. It is vital for nurses to provide thorough client and caregiver education for clients prescribed anticoagulants at home. Suggested client education topics are included for each type of medication below.<\/p>\n<h2>Heparin Sodium<\/h2>\n<p>Heparin sodium is an anticoagulant that can be injected or used intravenously and is formulated in several dosages. (See Figure 6.12.)<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Heparin Sodium sample.jpg&quot; by LHcheM is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 and &quot;Heparin in Dextrose Injection&quot; by Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0\" id=\"return-footnote-326-2\" href=\"#footnote-326-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> Because heparin is a high-alert medication, hospitals use several processes for storing and labeling it to help prevent errors. As nurses, we must ensure safety by following the appropriate steps when choosing which vial to draw up medication from, and follow hospital protocols during administration.\u00a0 Heparin is given by injection or intravenously. Most hospitals have weight-based protocols for IV heparin administration that titrate a client&#8217;s dosage to be within a therapeutic range based on the results of a lab test called <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_326_792\">Partial thromboplastin time (PTT)<\/a><\/strong>. PTT is a blood test that looks at how long it takes for blood to clot. Clients receiving heparin subcutaneous injections to prevent DVTs (deep vein thrombosis) do not require PTT monitoring.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_321\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-321\" style=\"width: 740px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-321 size-full\" title=\"&quot;Heparin Sodium sample.jpg&quot; by LHcheM is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 and &quot;Untitled&quot; by Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image.png\" alt=\"A vial of Heparin Sodium with addition image of ingredients label.\" width=\"740\" height=\"336\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image.png 740w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image-65x30.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image-225x102.png 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/12\/6_12-Heparin-Image-350x159.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 740px) 100vw, 740px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-321\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6.12 Heparin comes in many dosages, and overdose can be deadly, so it is important for the nurse to use safeguards to prevent potential medication errors<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Heparin inhibits the activated coagulation factors involved in the clotting sequence, particularly Xa and IIa. Heparin also prevents the formation of a stable fibrin clot by inhibiting the activation of the fibrin stabilizing factor. Heparin does not have fibrinolytic activity; therefore, it will not break down existing clots.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>IV heparin is commonly indicated for the treatment of deep venous thromboembolism (DVT) or pulmonary embolism. It is also indicated for use during an acute myocardial infarction. Subcutaneous heparin is commonly indicated to prevent DVT or embolization caused by atrial fibrillation. Heparin IV flushes (\u201cHep-Locks\u201d) are used to maintain the patency of central IV lines.<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>When bleeding requires the reversal of heparinization, the drug protamine sulfate is given by a slow infusion to neutralize heparin sodium and reverse the heparin action.<\/p>\n<p>A higher incidence of bleeding has been reported in clients over 60 years of age, especially women.<\/p>\n<p>Fatal hemorrhages have occurred due to medication errors. Carefully examine all heparin products to confirm the correct dose prior to the administration of the drug.<\/p>\n<p>IV heparin therapy requires close monitoring of frequent partial thromboplastin time (PTT) results to ensure dosage is in therapeutic range and to reduce the risk of overdose with associated bleeding. Dosage is considered adequate when the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) is 1.5 to 2 times the normal or when the whole blood clotting time is elevated approximately 2.5 to 3 times the control value.<\/p>\n<p>This drug is contraindicated in clients with a history of Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) and Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia and Thrombosis (HITT). HIT is a condition where platelets drop 30% or more below a client&#8217;s baseline after heparin is administered and can lead to HITT where thrombi are formed.<\/p>\n<p>Use with caution with medication that affects the coagulation cascade due to additive effects that increase the risk of bleeding. When a client is receiving IV heparin therapy to treat a blood clot, it may be overlapped with oral warfarin to establish anticoagulation therapy after discharge. See more information about this process under the \u201cWarfarin\u201d section.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>There is a high risk of bleeding that can lead to hemorrhaging. Notify prescribing provider immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising, or sudden changes in vital signs that indicate internal bleeding, such as decreasing blood pressure with an associated increase in heart rate.<\/p>\n<p>Some clients may develop Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) or Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia and Thrombosis (HITT); in these instances, heparin should be discontinued immediately.<\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Clients should notify health care staff immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising, and remind physicians and dentists that they are receiving heparin before any surgery or invasive procedure is scheduled.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-3\" href=\"#footnote-326-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> Clients should avoid medications containing aspirin or NSAIDS.\u00a0 Clients should avoid IM injections, and use a soft toothbrush and electric razor, as precautions against causing bleeding.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-4\" href=\"#footnote-326-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH)<\/h2>\n<p>Enoxaparin (Lovenox) is a low molecular weight heparin (LMWH) that is supplied in a prefilled syringe (see Figure 6.12a).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059&quot; by stux is licensed under CC0\" id=\"return-footnote-326-5\" href=\"#footnote-326-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a>\u00a0LMWH heparin formulations do not require lab monitoring.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 557px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"&quot;syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059&quot; by stux is licensed under CC0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image4-2.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"557\" height=\"371\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6.12a Enoxaparin in a prefilled syringe<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Enoxaparin is a low molecular weight heparin, which has antithrombotic properties with a higher ratio of anti-Factor Xa to anti-Factor IIa activity compared to heparin.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>It is indicated for the prevention and treatment of deep vein thrombosis (DVT), which may lead to pulmonary embolism (PE). It is also used in combination with aspirin for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction.<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>Enoxaparin is administered subcutaneously and preferably in the abdomen for best absorption.<\/p>\n<p>Safety and effectiveness have not been established in pediatric clients. The risk of bleeding increases with age, especially if used concurrently with antiplatelet medications.<\/p>\n<p>Use with caution in clients with renal impairment; risk of bleeding is increased. A dosage adjustment is recommended for clients with severe renal impairment.<\/p>\n<p>Overdoses can be neutralized with a slow IV infusion of protamine sulfate.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>Black Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with low molecular weight heparins (LMWH) and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis.<\/p>\n<p>There is a risk of bleeding and hemorrhaging, especially following percutaneous coronary revascularization procedures or with concurrent medication conditions such as recent GI ulcer. It may cause Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT) or Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia with Thrombosis (HITT).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-6\" href=\"#footnote-326-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Notify health care staff immediately of new signs of bleeding or bruising. Remind physicians and dentists that they are receiving heparin before any surgery or invasive procedure is scheduled.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-7\" href=\"#footnote-326-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> Clients should avoid medications containing aspirin or NSAIDS.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-8\" href=\"#footnote-326-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Warfarin<\/h2>\n<p>Warfarin (Coumadin) is an oral anticoagulant formulated in various strengths in different colors to help prevent errors when patients self-administer different dosages at home (see Figure 6.12b<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg&quot; by Gonegonegone is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0\" id=\"return-footnote-326-9\" href=\"#footnote-326-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a>). Close monitoring of <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_326_793\">prothrombin time (PT)<span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"><\/a><\/span><\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\">\u00a0<\/span><span style=\"text-align: initial; font-size: 1em;\">or <strong><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_326_794\"><\/strong><\/span><strong>international normalized ratio (INR)<\/strong><span style=\"font-size: 1em;\"><strong><\/a><\/strong> <\/span><span style=\"font-size: 1em; text-align: initial;\">is required.<\/span><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 452px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"&quot;Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg&quot; by Gonegonegone is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image5-1.png\" alt=\"Three piles of Warafin pills that are different colours.\" width=\"452\" height=\"280\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6.12b Warfarin is an oral pill with various strengths in different colors<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Warfarin acts by inhibiting the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, which include Factors II, VII, IX, and X and the anticoagulant proteins C and S.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>Warfarin is indicated for the following:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Prophylaxis and treatment of venous thrombosis and its extension, pulmonary embolism (PE).<\/li>\n<li>Prophylaxis and treatment of thromboembolic complications associated with atrial fibrillation (AF) and\/or cardiac valve replacement.<\/li>\n<li>Reduction in the risk of death, recurrent myocardial infarction (MI), and thromboembolic events such as stroke or systemic embolization after myocardial infarction.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>Warfarin is contraindicated in pregnant women except for those with mechanical heart valves; it can cause fetal harm.<\/p>\n<p>Vitamin K is the reversal agent.\u00a0 Fresh frozen plasma may be considered if the requirement to reverse the effects of warfarin sodium is urgent.<\/p>\n<p>Close monitoring of prothrombin time (PT) or international normalized ratio (INR) is required. Therapeutic INR ranges from 2.0 to 3.5, depending on the indication.<\/p>\n<p>In hospitalized clients receiving heparin therapy, there is often a period of overlap where the client is prescribed both IV heparin and warfarin until the INR reaches therapeutic range. At that point, the IV heparin is discontinued.<\/p>\n<p>Warfarin has significant interactions with many medications; read drug label information before administering.<\/p>\n<p>Warfarin sodium is contraindicated in clients with many conditions, including, but not limited to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Hemorrhagic tendencies or blood dyscrasias<\/li>\n<li>Recent or contemplated surgery of the central nervous system or eye, or traumatic surgery resulting in large open surfaces<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Bleeding tendencies associated with:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Active ulceration or overt bleeding of the gastrointestinal, genitourinary, or respiratory tracts<\/li>\n<li>Central nervous system hemorrhage<\/li>\n<li>Cerebral aneurysms and dissecting aorta<\/li>\n<li>Pericarditis and pericardial effusions<\/li>\n<li>Bacterial endocarditis<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Black Box Warnings: Warfarin can cause major or fatal bleeding. Perform regular monitoring of INR in all treated clients. Drugs, dietary changes, and other factors affect INR levels achieved with warfarin therapy. Instruct clients about prevention measures to minimize risk of bleeding and to report signs and symptoms of bleeding. Warfarin can cause acute kidney injury and bleeding risks are increased in clients with liver disease.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Client Teaching and Education<\/h3>\n<p>Advise clients to:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Avoid alcohol, cranberries, and grapefruit as they increase the effect of warfarin and the risk of bleeding.<\/li>\n<li>Strictly adhere to the prescribed dosage schedule.<\/li>\n<li>Follow INR monitoring guidelines as provided by the prescriber.<\/li>\n<li>Avoid any activity or sport that may result in traumatic injury.<\/li>\n<li>Tell their provider if they experience frequent falls, since warfarin can increase their risk for bleeding in the brain.<\/li>\n<li>Eat a normal, balanced diet, including green, leafy vegetables, to maintain a consistent intake of vitamin K.<\/li>\n<li>Tell all health care professionals and dentists that they are taking warfarin, especially before surgery or dental procedures.<\/li>\n<li>Use electric razors instead of straight razors.<\/li>\n<li>Carry identification stating that they are taking warfarin.<\/li>\n<li>Notify their provider immediately if any unusual bleeding or symptoms occur, such as pain, swelling or discomfort, prolonged bleeding from cuts, increased menstrual flow or vaginal bleeding, nosebleeds, bleeding of gums from brushing, unusual bleeding or bruising, red or dark brown urine, red or tar black stools, headache, dizziness, or weakness.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-10\" href=\"#footnote-326-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-50\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1.png\" alt=\"Image of lightbulb in a circle\" width=\"200\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1-150x150.png 150w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1-65x65.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2019\/09\/ORN-Icons_lightbulb-300x300-1-225x225.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/><\/p>\n<h2>Clinical Reasoning and Decision-Making Activity 6.12<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>A client who was treated in the hospital for DVT in his left leg has been prescribed warfarin.<\/p>\n<p>1. The client asks, \u201cWill the warfarin dissolve the clot in my leg?\u201d What is the nurse\u2019s best response?<\/p>\n<p>The nurse plans to assess the client&#8217;s lab work before administering the warfarin.<\/p>\n<p>2. What blood test(s) are important to monitor for clients taking warfarin, and what is the therapeutic range?<\/p>\n<p>The nurse knows that the client will need to monitor his diet when taking warfarin.<\/p>\n<p>3. What dietary instructions should be provided to the client?<\/p>\n<p>The nurse plans to provide client education regarding this newly prescribed medication.<\/p>\n<p>4. Outline the topics to cover with this high-risk medication.<\/p>\n<p>5. What is the reversal agent for warfarin?<\/p>\n<p>Note: Answers to these activities can be found in the &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/chapter\/chapter-6-answer-key\/\">Answer Key<\/a>&#8221; sections at the end of the book.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Rivaroxaban<\/h2>\n<p>Rivaroxaban (Xarelto) is a selective Xa inhibitor.<\/p>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Rivaroxaban is a selective inhibitor of factor Xa and indirectly inhibits platelet aggregation induced by thrombin.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>Rivaroxaban is indicated for prevention or treatment of DVT and PE. In combination with aspirin, it is indicated to reduce the risk of major cardiovascular events such as cardiovascular (CV) death, myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke, and in clients with chronic coronary artery disease (CAD) or peripheral artery disease (PAD).<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>For overdose, activated charcoal can be used to reduce absorption and Andexxa is a reversal agent.<\/p>\n<p>Avoid in clients with moderate to severe liver impairment. Report any unusual bleeding or bruising.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>Black Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with rivaroxaban and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis.<\/p>\n<p>Risk of bleeding can be fatal.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-11\" href=\"#footnote-326-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Clients should report any signs of unusual bleeding or bruising to the healthcare provider.\u00a0 The client should also notify the provider of all prescriptions, OTC medications, vitamins, and herbal products.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-12\" href=\"#footnote-326-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Dabigatran<\/h2>\n<p>Dabigatran (Pradaxa) is a direct-acting thrombin inhibitor.<\/p>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Dabigatran is a competitive, direct thrombin inhibitor. Because thrombin enables the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin during the coagulation cascade, its inhibition prevents the development of a thrombus.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>This drug is used to prevent or treat deep vein thromboses (DVT) or pulmonary emboli (PE).<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>Overdose: Idarucizumab, a specific reversal agent, is available for urgent care or emergency operation client care.<\/p>\n<p>Safety and effectiveness in pediatric clients have not been established.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>Black Box Warning: Epidural or spinal hematomas may occur in clients who are anticoagulated with dabigatran and are receiving neuraxial anesthesia or undergoing spinal puncture. These hematomas may result in long-term or permanent paralysis<strong>.<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Risk of bleeding can be fatal.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-13\" href=\"#footnote-326-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Clients should report any signs of unusual bleeding or bruising to the healthcare provider.\u00a0 Additionally, dabigatran bottles should be disposed of four months after opening. The client should also notify the provider of all prescriptions, OTC medications, vitamins, and herbal products.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-14\" href=\"#footnote-326-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Alteplase (tPA)<\/h2>\n<p>Alteplase (tPA) is a thrombolytic used to break up clots. It has a very short half-life of 5 minutes so it can open a clogged artery rapidly. It is often given with heparin to prevent reocclusion of the affected blood vessel. There is also a smaller dosage form that is used to flush clogged IV or arterial lines.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"McCuistion, L., Vuljoin-DiMaggio, K., Winton, M, &amp; Yeager, J. (2018). Pharmacology: A patient-centered nursing process approach. pp. 443-454. Elsevier.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-15\" href=\"#footnote-326-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Alteplase binds to fibrin in a thrombus and converts the entrapped plasminogen to plasmin, thus breaking down the clot.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>Alteplase is indicated for the acute treatment of myocardial infarction (MI), stroke, or massive pulmonary embolism (PE).\u00a0 It is also used to clear central lines such as a peripherally inserted central line catheter (PICC). It is important to understand that Alteplase is considered a &#8220;clot buster&#8221; whereas previous anti-platelet drugs do not clot-bust but rather make them less sticky.\u00a0 This make Alteplase very much more risky when administering. Since it cannot differentiate between what clot you want to dissolve, it basically floats through the blood destroying all clots.<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>The drug is contraindicated in situations in which the risk of significant bleeding is greater than the potential benefit such as:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Active internal or intracranial bleeding<\/li>\n<li>History of recent stroke<\/li>\n<li>Recent (within 3 months) intracranial or intraspinal surgery or serious head trauma<\/li>\n<li>Presence of intracranial conditions that may increase the risk of bleeding (e.g., some neoplasms, arteriovenous malformations, or aneurysms)<\/li>\n<li>Current severe uncontrolled hypertension<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Significant post-administration monitoring is performed due to the risk of life-threatening bleeding.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>This drug can cause significant, sometimes fatal, internal or external bleeding, especially at arterial and venous puncture sites. Avoid intramuscular injections and perform venipunctures carefully and only as required. It can increase the risk of thrombo-embolic events in clients with high likelihood of left heart thrombus, such as clients with atrial fibrillation.<\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Clients must institute bleeding precautions to prevent complications of therapy.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-16\" href=\"#footnote-326-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Antiplatelets<\/h2>\n<p>Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and clopidogrel (Plavix) are antiplatelet medications.<\/p>\n<p>During an active myocardial infarction (heart attack), chewable aspirins are used due to their rapid absorption (see Figure 6.12c<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"&quot;Bayer Aspirin Low Dose&quot; by Mike Mozart is licensed under CC BY 2.0\" id=\"return-footnote-326-17\" href=\"#footnote-326-17\" aria-label=\"Footnote 17\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[17]<\/sup><\/a>).<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 483px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" title=\"&quot;Bayer Aspirin Low Dose&quot; by Mike Mozart is licensed under CC BY 2.0\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/397\/2022\/05\/image6-2.png\" alt=\"Bayer brand aspirin package.\" width=\"483\" height=\"303\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure 6.12c Chewable aspirin are used for clients experiencing a MI<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Mechanism of Action<\/h3>\n<p>Aspirin inhibits platelet activation and aggregation.<\/p>\n<h3>Indications for Use<\/h3>\n<p>Aspirin is indicated in clients with established peripheral arterial disease or a history of recent myocardial infarction (MI) or stroke to reduce the rate of MI and stroke. It is also indicated to reduce the rate of myocardial infarction (MI) and stroke in clients with ST-elevation and non\u2013ST-segment elevation ACS.<\/p>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations Across the Lifespan<\/h3>\n<p>It is important to remember that the effects of these medications last the life of the platelet (7-10 days), so aspirin will need to be withheld for several days before surgery or certain procedures to prevent excessive bleeding. In elderly clients, there is an increased risk of bleeding events with concurrent use of Clopidogrel plus aspirin. Aspirin is contraindicated in children under the age of 12 with flu-like symptoms due to the risk of Reye\u2019s syndrome.<\/p>\n<p>Overdose is irreversible.<\/p>\n<p>Clopidogrel (Plavix) is metabolized to its active metabolite by CYP2C19. Concomitant use of drugs that inhibit the activity of this enzyme results in reduced plasma concentrations of the active metabolite of Clopidogrel and a reduction in platelet inhibition. This drug is often seen after acute myocardial infarctions (MI) when an angioplasty has been performed and a stent is placed in the heart. The stent is a high risk for clots to form so Clopidogrel helps prevent clot aggregating on the site.<\/p>\n<h3>Adverse\/Side Effects<\/h3>\n<p>Increased risk of bleeding.<\/p>\n<p>Black Box Warning: Reduced effectiveness for clients referred to as \u201cCYP2C19 poor metabolizers.\u201d<\/p>\n<h3>Client Teaching &amp; Education<\/h3>\n<p>Clients should report tinnitus, unusual bleeding of the gums, bruising, or blood in the stool to the healthcare provider immediately.\u00a0 While on antiplatelet therapy, clients should avoid alcohol to prevent gastric irritation.\u00a0 Additionally, clients should avoid NSAIDs while receiving antiplatelet therapy.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"uCentral from Unbound Medicine. https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" id=\"return-footnote-326-18\" href=\"#footnote-326-18\" aria-label=\"Footnote 18\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h1>Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel Medication Card<\/h1>\n<p>Now let&#8217;s take a closer look at the medication card for acetylsalicylic acid and clopidogrel in Table 6.12.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"This work is a derivative of Daily Med by U.S. National Library of Medicine in the public domain.\" id=\"return-footnote-326-19\" href=\"#footnote-326-19\" aria-label=\"Footnote 19\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[19]<\/sup><\/a> Because information about medication is constantly changing, nurses should always consult evidence-based resources to review current recommendations before administering specific medication.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Medication Card 6.12.1: Acetylsalicylic Acid and Clopidogrel<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><strong>Class: <\/strong>Blood Coagulation Modifiers (Antiplatelet)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Prototypes: <\/strong>Acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) and Clopidogrel (Plavix) Two common ones used in Cardiac patients<\/p>\n<p><strong>Mechanism: <\/strong>ASA inhibits platelet activation and aggregation. Plavix is metabolized to its active metabolite by CYP2C19. Concomitant use of drugs that inhibit the activity of this enzyme results in reduced plasma concentrations of the active metabolite of Plavix and a reduction in platelet inhibition<\/p>\n<h3>Therapeutic Effects<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Inhibits platelet development and stickiness<\/li>\n<li>Plavix also acts on enzyme to reduce plasma concentrations to increase reduction of platelets<\/li>\n<li>Allow blood flow through blood vessels<\/li>\n<li>Prevents platelets from sticking and blocking areas within the blood vessel to keep open blood flow and oxygenation to occur<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Administration<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>PO pills given-dose depends on patient and medical reason as per MD<\/li>\n<li>Administer with food to avoid upset and bleeding GI<\/li>\n<li>Monitor for signs of bleeding or bruising<\/li>\n<li>Overdose is irreversible<\/li>\n<li>Avoid eating or drinking grapefruit juice<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Indications<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>MI<\/li>\n<li>Stroke<\/li>\n<li>Acute Coronary Syndrome (ACS)<\/li>\n<li>Post angioplasty and stent insertion<\/li>\n<li>Unstable Angina<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Contraindications<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Children under 12 can get flu like symptoms due to risk of Reye\u2019s Syndrome<\/li>\n<li>Avoid alcohol to prevent gastric irritation and GI bleed<\/li>\n<li>Avoid NSAIDS<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Side Effects<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Tinnitus<\/li>\n<li>Unusual bleeding of gums<\/li>\n<li>Bruising<\/li>\n<li>Blood in stool<\/li>\n<li><strong>S<\/strong><strong>AFETY<\/strong><strong>:<\/strong>\n<ul>\n<li>Bleeding risk<\/li>\n<li>Note that some MD prescribe Plavix and ASA at the same time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li><strong>Contact 911<\/strong> if sudden vision changes, confusion, weakness, arm pain or sweating, trouble speaking<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Nursing Considerations<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>If person needs surgery must hold these drugs for 7- 10 days (life of a platelet) to prevent bleeding in surgery<\/li>\n<li>Monitor for signs and symptoms of bleeding including heart rate elevation, low urine output and hypotension<\/li>\n<li>Check abdomen for signs of bruising or bleeding\/enlargement and turn patient to side to assess peritoneal area for bleeding\/bruising<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-326-1\">Anderson, P. &amp; Townsend, T. (2015) Preventing high-alert medication errors in hospital patients. <em>Nurse Today, 10<\/em>(5). <a href=\"https:\/\/www.americannursetoday.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/ant5-CE-421.pdf\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.americannursetoday.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/05\/ant5-CE-421.pdf<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-2\">\"<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heparin_Sodium_sample.jpg\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Heparin Sodium sample.jpg\"<\/a> by<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:LHcheM\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"> LHcheM<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> and \"Heparin in Dextrose Injection\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.cvtc.edu\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Chippewa Valley Technical College<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 4.0<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-3\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-4\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-5\">\"<a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/photos\/syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">syringe-disposable-syringe-blister-103059<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/stux-12364\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">stux<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/cc0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC0<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-6\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-7\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-8\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-9\">\"<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Warfarintablets5-3-1.jpg<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/User:Gonegonegone\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Gonegonegone<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-10\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-11\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-12\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-13\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-14\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-15\">McCuistion, L., Vuljoin-DiMaggio, K., Winton, M, &amp; Yeager, J. (2018). <em>Pharmacology: A patient-centered nursing process approach.<\/em> pp. 443-454. Elsevier. <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-16\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-17\">\"<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/jeepersmedia\/15563763373\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Bayer Aspirin Low Dose<\/a>\" by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/jeepersmedia\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Mike Mozart<\/a> is licensed under <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">CC BY 2.0<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-17\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 17\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-18\">uCentral from Unbound Medicine. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">https:\/\/www.unboundmedicine.com\/ucentral<\/a> <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-18\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 18\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-326-19\">This work is a derivative of <a href=\"https:\/\/dailymed.nlm.nih.gov\/dailymed\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">Daily Med<\/a> by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.nlm.nih.gov\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">U.S. National Library of Medicine<\/a> in the <a class=\"internal\" href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/share-your-work\/public-domain\/\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\">public domain<\/a>.  <a href=\"#return-footnote-326-19\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 19\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div><div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_326_797\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_326_797\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>Any substance that opposes coagulation.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_326_792\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_326_792\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A blood test used to monitor how long it takes for a patient\u2019s blood to clot. Used for patients receiving IV heparin therapy to achieve therapeutic range.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_326_793\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_326_793\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A blood test used to monitor the effects of warfarin.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><template id=\"term_326_794\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_326_794\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>A blood test used to monitor the effects of warfarin and to achieve therapeutic range, generally between 2.0 and 3.5 based on the indication.<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":12,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[50],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-326","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","chapter-type-numberless"],"part":268,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/326","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":7,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/326\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1744,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/326\/revisions\/1744"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/268"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/326\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=326"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=326"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=326"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/nursingpharmacology\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=326"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}