![\"\"](\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/physicalgeology2ed\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/298\/2019\/06\/meandering.png\")
<\/a> Figure 13.3.1 The relative velocity of stream flow depending on whether the stream channel is straight or curved (left), and with respect to the water depth (right). <\/a> Figure 13.3.1 The relative velocity of stream flow depending on whether the stream channel is straight or curved (left), and with respect to the water depth (right). [Image Description]<\/a>[\/caption]Other factors that affect stream-water velocity are the size of sediments on the stream bed\u2014because large particles tend to slow the flow more than small ones\u2014and the [pb_glossary id=\"1451\"]discharge[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>, or volume of water passing a point in a unit of time (e.g., cubic metres (m3<\/sup>) per second). During a flood, the water level always rises, so there is more cross-sectional area for the water to flow in, however, as long as a river remains confined to its channel, the velocity of the water flow also increases.\r\n\r\nFigure 13.3.2 shows the nature of sediment transportation in a stream. Large particles rest on the bottom\u2014[pb_glossary id=\"1452\"]bed load[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>\u2014and may only be moved during rapid flows under flood conditions. They can be moved by [pb_glossary id=\"1737\"]saltation[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (bouncing) and by [pb_glossary id=\"1738\"]traction[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong> (being pushed along by the force of the flow).\r\n\r\nSmaller particles may rest on the bottom some of the time, where they can be moved by saltation and traction, but they can also be held in suspension in the flowing water, especially at higher velocities. As you know from intuition and from experience, streams that flow fast tend to be turbulent (flow paths are chaotic and the water surface appears rough) and the water may be muddy, while those that flow more slowly tend to have laminar flow (straight-line flow and a smooth water surface) and clear water. Turbulent flow is more effective than laminar flow at keeping sediments in suspension.\r\n\r\nStream water also has a dissolved load, which represents (on average) about 15% of the mass of material transported, and includes ions such as calcium (Ca+2<\/sup>) and chloride (Cl\u2212<\/sup>) in solution. The solubility of these ions is not affected by flow velocity.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_587\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"750\"]![\"\"](\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/physicalgeology2ed\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/298\/2019\/08\/transportation-of-sediments.png\"){kind=spacer}
<\/a> Figure 13.3.3 Modes of transportation of sediments and dissolved ions (represented by red dots with + and \u2212 signs) in a stream.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe faster the water is flowing, the larger the particles that can be kept in suspension and transported within the flowing water. However, as Swedish geographer Filip Hjulstr\u00f6m discovered in the 1940s, the relationship between grain size and the likelihood of a grain being eroded, transported, or deposited is not as simple as one might imagine (Figure 13.3.3). Consider, for example, a 1 millimetre grain of sand. If it is resting on the bottom, it will remain there until the velocity is high enough to erode it, around 20 centimetres per second (cm\/s). But once it is in suspension, that same 1 mm particle will remain in suspension as long as the velocity doesn\u2019t drop below 10 cm\/s. For a 10 mm gravel grain, the velocity is 105 cm\/s to be eroded from the bed but only 80 cm\/s to remain in suspension.<\/a>\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_588\" align=\"alignright\" width=\"600\"]![\"\"](\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/physicalgeology2ed\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/298\/2019\/08\/hulstrom-2.png\")
<\/a> Figure 13.3.3 The Hjulstr\u00f6m-Sundborg diagram showing the relationships between particle size and the tendency to be eroded, transported, or deposited at different current velocities. [Image Description]<\/a>[\/caption]On the other hand, a 0.01 mm silt particle only needs a velocity of 0.1 centimetres per second (cm\/s) to remain in suspension, but requires 60 cm\/s to be eroded. In other words, a tiny silt grain requires a greater velocity to be eroded than a grain of sand that is 100 times larger! For clay-sized particles, the discrepancy is even greater. In a stream, the most easily eroded particles are small sand grains between 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm. Anything smaller or larger requires a higher water velocity to be eroded and entrained in the flow. The main reason for this is that small particles, and especially the tiny grains of clay, have a strong tendency to stick together, and so are difficult to erode from the stream bed.\r\n\r\nIt is important to be aware that a stream can both erode and deposit sediments at the same time. At 100 cm\/s, for example, silt, sand, and medium gravel will be eroded from the stream bed and transported in suspension, coarse gravel will be held in suspension, pebbles will be both transported and deposited, and cobbles and boulders will remain stationary on the stream bed.\r\nExercise 13.3 Understanding the Hjulstr\u00f6m-Sundborg diagram<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n
![\"\"](\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/physicalgeology2ed\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/298\/2019\/08\/levees.png\")
<\/a> Figure 13.3.4 The development of natural lev\u00e9es during flooding of a stream. The sediments of the lev\u00e9e become increasingly fine away from the stream channel, and even finer sediments\u2014clay, silt, and fine sand\u2014are deposited across most of the flood plain.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nA stream typically reaches its greatest velocity when it is close to flooding over its banks. This is known as the bank-full stage, as shown in Figure 13.3.4. As soon as the flooding stream overtops its banks and occupies the wide area of its flood plain, the water has a much larger area to flow through and the velocity drops significantly. At this point, sediment that was being carried by the high-velocity water is deposited near the edge of the channel, forming a natural bank or [pb_glossary id=\"1739\"]lev\u00e9e[\/pb_glossary]<\/strong>.\r\nAs we discussed in Chapter 6, flowing water is a very important mechanism for erosion, transportation and deposition of sediments. Water flow in a stream is primarily related to the stream\u2019s gradient, but it is also controlled by the geometry of the stream channel. As shown in Figure 13.3.1, water flow velocity is decreased by friction along the stream bed, so it is slowest at the bottom and edges and fastest near the surface and in the middle. In fact, the velocity just below the surface is typically a little higher than right at the surface because of friction between the water and the air. On a curved section of a stream, flow is fastest on the outside and slowest on the inside.<\/a><\/p>\n Other factors that affect stream-water velocity are the size of sediments on the stream bed\u2014because large particles tend to slow the flow more than small ones\u2014and the discharge<\/a><\/strong>, or volume of water passing a point in a unit of time (e.g., cubic metres (m3<\/sup>) per second). During a flood, the water level always rises, so there is more cross-sectional area for the water to flow in, however, as long as a river remains confined to its channel, the velocity of the water flow also increases.<\/p>\n Figure 13.3.2 shows the nature of sediment transportation in a stream. Large particles rest on the bottom\u2014bed load<\/a><\/strong>\u2014and may only be moved during rapid flows under flood conditions. They can be moved by saltation<\/a><\/strong> (bouncing) and by traction<\/a><\/strong> (being pushed along by the force of the flow).<\/p>\n Smaller particles may rest on the bottom some of the time, where they can be moved by saltation and traction, but they can also be held in suspension in the flowing water, especially at higher velocities. As you know from intuition and from experience, streams that flow fast tend to be turbulent (flow paths are chaotic and the water surface appears rough) and the water may be muddy, while those that flow more slowly tend to have laminar flow (straight-line flow and a smooth water surface) and clear water. Turbulent flow is more effective than laminar flow at keeping sediments in suspension.<\/p>\n Stream water also has a dissolved load, which represents (on average) about 15% of the mass of material transported, and includes ions such as calcium (Ca+2<\/sup>) and chloride (Cl\u2212<\/sup>) in solution. The solubility of these ions is not affected by flow velocity.<\/p>\n The faster the water is flowing, the larger the particles that can be kept in suspension and transported within the flowing water. However, as Swedish geographer Filip Hjulstr\u00f6m discovered in the 1940s, the relationship between grain size and the likelihood of a grain being eroded, transported, or deposited is not as simple as one might imagine (Figure 13.3.3). Consider, for example, a 1 millimetre grain of sand. If it is resting on the bottom, it will remain there until the velocity is high enough to erode it, around 20 centimetres per second (cm\/s). But once it is in suspension, that same 1 mm particle will remain in suspension as long as the velocity doesn\u2019t drop below 10 cm\/s. For a 10 mm gravel grain, the velocity is 105 cm\/s to be eroded from the bed but only 80 cm\/s to remain in suspension.<\/a><\/p>\n On the other hand, a 0.01 mm silt particle only needs a velocity of 0.1 centimetres per second (cm\/s) to remain in suspension, but requires 60 cm\/s to be eroded. In other words, a tiny silt grain requires a greater velocity to be eroded than a grain of sand that is 100 times larger! For clay-sized particles, the discrepancy is even greater. In a stream, the most easily eroded particles are small sand grains between 0.2 mm and 0.5 mm. Anything smaller or larger requires a higher water velocity to be eroded and entrained in the flow. The main reason for this is that small particles, and especially the tiny grains of clay, have a strong tendency to stick together, and so are difficult to erode from the stream bed.<\/p>\n It is important to be aware that a stream can both erode and deposit sediments at the same time. At 100 cm\/s, for example, silt, sand, and medium gravel will be eroded from the stream bed and transported in suspension, coarse gravel will be held in suspension, pebbles will be both transported and deposited, and cobbles and boulders will remain stationary on the stream bed.<\/p>\n Exercise 13.3 Understanding the Hjulstr\u00f6m-Sundborg diagram<\/p>\n<\/header>\n Refer to the Hjulstr\u00f6m-Sundborg diagram (Figure 13.3.3) to answer these questions.<\/p>\n See Appendix 3 for Exercise 13.3 answers<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n A stream typically reaches its greatest velocity when it is close to flooding over its banks. This is known as the bank-full stage, as shown in Figure 13.3.4. As soon as the flooding stream overtops its banks and occupies the wide area of its flood plain, the water has a much larger area to flow through and the velocity drops significantly. At this point, sediment that was being carried by the high-velocity water is deposited near the edge of the channel, forming a natural bank or lev\u00e9e<\/a><\/strong>.<\/p>\n <\/a>Figure 13.3.1 image description:<\/strong> When a stream curves, the flow of water is fastest on the outside of the curve and slowest on the inside of the curve. When the stream is straight and a uniform depth, the stream flows fastest in the middle near the top and slowest along the edges. When the depth is not uniform, the stream flows fastest in the deeper section. [Return to Figure 13.3.1]<\/a><\/p>\n<\/a><\/a><\/a>\n\n\n
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<\/a>Image Descriptions<\/h3>\n