{"id":64,"date":"2019-12-19T16:01:00","date_gmt":"2019-12-19T21:01:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/chapter\/plant-morphology-flowers-and-fruit\/"},"modified":"2023-06-29T18:43:25","modified_gmt":"2023-06-29T22:43:25","slug":"plant-morphology-flowers-and-fruit","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/chapter\/plant-morphology-flowers-and-fruit\/","title":{"raw":"Plant Morphology \u2013 Flowers and Fruit","rendered":"Plant Morphology \u2013 Flowers and Fruit"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Describe the morphological characteristics of flowers and fruit.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe most significant patterns, in terms of evolutionary relationships, involve reproductive structures, such as the number and arrangement of flower parts, or the structure of cones. While the size and shape of vegetative structures such as leaves and stems are relatively plastic or changeable, the basic patterns of reproductive structures change little over time. Although access to flowers and fruit may be seasonal, digital resources and herbarium samples allow the identification of patterns and relationships within plant taxa.\r\n<h2>Flower and Inflorescence Morphology<\/h2>\r\nFlower shape, color, and markings are all valuable features for plant identification. Figure 16.1 illustrates some flower shapes that are commonly used for identification purposes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_63\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"644\"]<img class=\"wp-image-59 size-full\" title=\"Flower corolla shapes\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904.jpg\" alt=\"Flower corolla shapes with terms below: rotate, campanulate, funnelform, urceolate, salverform, ligulate, bilabiate, papilionaceous\" width=\"644\" height=\"118\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.1 Flower corolla shapes.<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nA typical angiosperm flower is borne on a peduncle (stalk) and is composed of the receptacle, sepals (calyx), petals (corolla), stamens, and pistil (carpel). Flower parts may be fused or separate and usually exhibit radial (star-shaped) symmetry or bilateral (two-mirror image halves) symmetry as shown in Figure 16.2.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_63\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"500\"]<img class=\"wp-image-1349\" title=\"Flower parts and symmetry\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Flower-parts-and-symmetry-1-2.jpg\" alt=\"Flower parts (stamen, carpel (pistil), petal (part of corolla), receptacle, peduncle, sepal (part of calyx) and symmetry (radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry)\" width=\"500\" height=\"176\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.2 Flower parts and symmetry.<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn addition to their shape, flowers are often differentiated by further dissections of their structure. For example, complete flowers must have all four main flower parts: sepals, petals, stamens (male) and pistils (female), while incomplete flowers will be missing one or more of these parts. Most flowering plants have perfect flowers that contain both male and female reproductive parts. However, some have imperfect flowers that contain only the male or female part (stamen or pistil) and may or may not contain sepals or petals. A species may have individual plants that are dioecious, producing either male or female flowers or cones on separate plants. Plants that are monoecious\u00a0 produce both female and male flowers and cones on one plant.\r\n\r\nAngiosperms produce flowers which are arranged on a structure called an inflorescence. An inflorescence may support a solitary flower or display individual flowers (florets) to pollinators or expose flower parts to pollen carried on air currents. Figure 16.3 illustrates types of inflorescence commonly found in both woody and herbaceous plants.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_63\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]<img class=\"wp-image-61\" title=\"Inflorescence types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types.jpg\" alt=\"Inflorescence types with terms below: spike, raceme, corymb, panicle, umbel, cyme, dichasial cyme, helicoid cyme\" width=\"600\" height=\"162\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.3 Inflorescence types.<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Fruit Morphology<\/h2>\r\nFor the majority of angiosperms, when a flower is pollinated, the pollen joins with an egg to produce a seed. The seed develops within the ovary which is part of the pistil, a female reproductive organ of the flower. The expanded and ripened ovary is referred to as the fruit. Commonly, the enlarged ovary becomes the edible portion of the fruit.\r\n\r\nFruits are classified into one of three main groups: simple, aggregate, or multiple, as shown in Figure 16.4 and Figure 16.5. Simple fruits, which form from a single, ripened ovary, may be either fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits include the berry (grape), pepo (pumpkin), hesperidium (orange), drupe (plum), and pome (apple). Aggregate fruit develop from a single flower with numerous pistils. Once fertilized, the individual pistils develop into tiny fruitlets clustered on a single receptacle, as in a raspberry or blackberry. Multiple fruits, such as pineapples, form when numerous fertilized flowers in a single inflorescence develop together into a larger fruit.\r\n\r\nDry fruits,\u00a0 are either dehiscent (split open at maturity) or indehiscent (remain closed at maturity). Dry fruits that split at maturity include the legume (pea), silique (mustard), follicle (milkweed), and capsule (cotton). Dry fruits that do not split at maturity include the achene (sunflower), nut (pecan, almond), grain (corn), samara (ash), and schizocarp (geranium, carrot).\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_63\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"571\"]<img class=\"wp-image-62 size-full\" title=\"Fruit types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types.jpg\" alt=\"Fruit types with numbers below, 1 to 15. Terms given in next figure\" width=\"571\" height=\"387\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.4 Fruit morphology chart.<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_63\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"600\"]<img class=\"wp-image-63 size-full\" title=\"Key to fruit types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387.jpg\" alt=\"Key to fruit types with numbered terms. Simple Fruit - Fleshy: 1. Pome (apple), 2. Drupe (cherry), 3. Berry (tomato). Dry, indehiscent: 4. Samara (ash), 5. Achene (sunflower), 6. Nut (pecan), 7. Grain (corn), 8. Schizocarp (geranium). Dry, dehiscent: 9. Legume (pea), 10. Capsule (cotton), 11. Silicle (shepherd's purse), 12. Silique (mustard), 13. Follicle (milkweed). Compound fruit: 14. Aggregate fruit (blackberry), 15. Multiple fruit (pineapple)\" width=\"600\" height=\"285\" \/> <span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.5 Key to fruit types.<\/span>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn addition to an important feature for identification purposes, many fruit types have decorative value and may provide long season interest in the landscape.\r\n\r\nFor the majority of gymnosperms, the cone is the reproductive structure. Most familiar is the female cone, which is constructed of many small, rounded, scale-like structures attached to a central stem. The pollen bearing male cone is characteristically smaller than the female cone. Typically, a naked seed will develop on each of the scales of a female cone. Examples of recognizable cone characteristics for some closely-related conifers are available at this link to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.treeguideuk.co.uk\/mini-guides\/conifer-cone\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><em>Conifer Cones - Tree Guide UK<\/em> [New Tab]<\/a>.[footnote]https:\/\/www.treeguideuk.co.uk\/mini-guides\/conifer-cone\/[\/footnote]\r\n<h2>Review<\/h2>\r\nMatch the flower and inflorescence types.\r\n\r\n[h5p id=\"28\"]\r\n<h2>Review<\/h2>\r\nSelect and place the correct term next to the plant that has that fruit type. Search the type of fruit for each plant at this link to the <a href=\"https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/#gsc.tab=0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" data-cke-saved-href=\"https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/\"><em>KPU Plant Database<\/em> [New Tab]<\/a>[footnote]https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/#gsc.tab=0[\/footnote].\r\n<p class=\"Bodynt\" style=\"line-height: 115%;\">[h5p id=\"29\"]<\/p>","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--learning-objectives\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<p class=\"textbox__title\">Learning Objectives<\/p>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li>Describe the morphological characteristics of flowers and fruit.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p>The most significant patterns, in terms of evolutionary relationships, involve reproductive structures, such as the number and arrangement of flower parts, or the structure of cones. While the size and shape of vegetative structures such as leaves and stems are relatively plastic or changeable, the basic patterns of reproductive structures change little over time. Although access to flowers and fruit may be seasonal, digital resources and herbarium samples allow the identification of patterns and relationships within plant taxa.<\/p>\n<h2>Flower and Inflorescence Morphology<\/h2>\n<p>Flower shape, color, and markings are all valuable features for plant identification. Figure 16.1 illustrates some flower shapes that are commonly used for identification purposes.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_63\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-63\" style=\"width: 644px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-59 size-full\" title=\"Flower corolla shapes\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904.jpg\" alt=\"Flower corolla shapes with terms below: rotate, campanulate, funnelform, urceolate, salverform, ligulate, bilabiate, papilionaceous\" width=\"644\" height=\"118\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904.jpg 644w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904-300x55.jpg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904-65x12.jpg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904-225x41.jpg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/01\/Flower-corolla-shapes-e1581273627904-350x64.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 644px) 100vw, 644px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-63\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.1 Flower corolla shapes.<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>A typical angiosperm flower is borne on a peduncle (stalk) and is composed of the receptacle, sepals (calyx), petals (corolla), stamens, and pistil (carpel). Flower parts may be fused or separate and usually exhibit radial (star-shaped) symmetry or bilateral (two-mirror image halves) symmetry as shown in Figure 16.2.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_63\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-63\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-1349\" title=\"Flower parts and symmetry\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Flower-parts-and-symmetry-1-2.jpg\" alt=\"Flower parts (stamen, carpel (pistil), petal (part of corolla), receptacle, peduncle, sepal (part of calyx) and symmetry (radial symmetry, bilateral symmetry)\" width=\"500\" height=\"176\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-63\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.2 Flower parts and symmetry.<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In addition to their shape, flowers are often differentiated by further dissections of their structure. For example, complete flowers must have all four main flower parts: sepals, petals, stamens (male) and pistils (female), while incomplete flowers will be missing one or more of these parts. Most flowering plants have perfect flowers that contain both male and female reproductive parts. However, some have imperfect flowers that contain only the male or female part (stamen or pistil) and may or may not contain sepals or petals. A species may have individual plants that are dioecious, producing either male or female flowers or cones on separate plants. Plants that are monoecious\u00a0 produce both female and male flowers and cones on one plant.<\/p>\n<p>Angiosperms produce flowers which are arranged on a structure called an inflorescence. An inflorescence may support a solitary flower or display individual flowers (florets) to pollinators or expose flower parts to pollen carried on air currents. Figure 16.3 illustrates types of inflorescence commonly found in both woody and herbaceous plants.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_63\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-63\" style=\"width: 600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-61\" title=\"Inflorescence types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types.jpg\" alt=\"Inflorescence types with terms below: spike, raceme, corymb, panicle, umbel, cyme, dichasial cyme, helicoid cyme\" width=\"600\" height=\"162\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types.jpg 782w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types-300x81.jpg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types-768x207.jpg 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types-65x18.jpg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types-225x61.jpg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Inflorescence-types-350x94.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-63\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.3 Inflorescence types.<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Fruit Morphology<\/h2>\n<p>For the majority of angiosperms, when a flower is pollinated, the pollen joins with an egg to produce a seed. The seed develops within the ovary which is part of the pistil, a female reproductive organ of the flower. The expanded and ripened ovary is referred to as the fruit. Commonly, the enlarged ovary becomes the edible portion of the fruit.<\/p>\n<p>Fruits are classified into one of three main groups: simple, aggregate, or multiple, as shown in Figure 16.4 and Figure 16.5. Simple fruits, which form from a single, ripened ovary, may be either fleshy or dry. Fleshy fruits include the berry (grape), pepo (pumpkin), hesperidium (orange), drupe (plum), and pome (apple). Aggregate fruit develop from a single flower with numerous pistils. Once fertilized, the individual pistils develop into tiny fruitlets clustered on a single receptacle, as in a raspberry or blackberry. Multiple fruits, such as pineapples, form when numerous fertilized flowers in a single inflorescence develop together into a larger fruit.<\/p>\n<p>Dry fruits,\u00a0 are either dehiscent (split open at maturity) or indehiscent (remain closed at maturity). Dry fruits that split at maturity include the legume (pea), silique (mustard), follicle (milkweed), and capsule (cotton). Dry fruits that do not split at maturity include the achene (sunflower), nut (pecan, almond), grain (corn), samara (ash), and schizocarp (geranium, carrot).<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_63\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-63\" style=\"width: 571px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-62 size-full\" title=\"Fruit types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types.jpg\" alt=\"Fruit types with numbers below, 1 to 15. Terms given in next figure\" width=\"571\" height=\"387\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types.jpg 571w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types-300x203.jpg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types-65x44.jpg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types-225x152.jpg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Fruit-Types-350x237.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 571px) 100vw, 571px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-63\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.4 Fruit morphology chart.<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_63\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-63\" style=\"width: 600px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-63 size-full\" title=\"Key to fruit types\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/accessibilitytoolkit\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387.jpg\" alt=\"Key to fruit types with numbered terms. Simple Fruit - Fleshy: 1. Pome (apple), 2. Drupe (cherry), 3. Berry (tomato). Dry, indehiscent: 4. Samara (ash), 5. Achene (sunflower), 6. Nut (pecan), 7. Grain (corn), 8. Schizocarp (geranium). Dry, dehiscent: 9. Legume (pea), 10. Capsule (cotton), 11. Silicle (shepherd's purse), 12. Silique (mustard), 13. Follicle (milkweed). Compound fruit: 14. Aggregate fruit (blackberry), 15. Multiple fruit (pineapple)\" width=\"600\" height=\"285\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387.jpg 600w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387-300x143.jpg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387-65x31.jpg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387-225x107.jpg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/318\/2020\/09\/Key-to-fruit-types-e1581284214387-350x166.jpg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 600px) 100vw, 600px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-63\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><span style=\"color: #000000;\">Figure 16.5 Key to fruit types.<\/span><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In addition to an important feature for identification purposes, many fruit types have decorative value and may provide long season interest in the landscape.<\/p>\n<p>For the majority of gymnosperms, the cone is the reproductive structure. Most familiar is the female cone, which is constructed of many small, rounded, scale-like structures attached to a central stem. The pollen bearing male cone is characteristically smaller than the female cone. Typically, a naked seed will develop on each of the scales of a female cone. Examples of recognizable cone characteristics for some closely-related conifers are available at this link to <a href=\"https:\/\/www.treeguideuk.co.uk\/mini-guides\/conifer-cone\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\"><em>Conifer Cones &#8211; Tree Guide UK<\/em> [New Tab]<\/a>.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"https:\/\/www.treeguideuk.co.uk\/mini-guides\/conifer-cone\/\" id=\"return-footnote-64-1\" href=\"#footnote-64-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<h2>Review<\/h2>\n<p>Match the flower and inflorescence types.<\/p>\n<div id=\"h5p-28\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-28\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"28\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Plant morphology flowers and fruit 1\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2>Review<\/h2>\n<p>Select and place the correct term next to the plant that has that fruit type. Search the type of fruit for each plant at this link to the <a href=\"https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/#gsc.tab=0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener noreferrer\" data-cke-saved-href=\"https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/\"><em>KPU Plant Database<\/em> [New Tab]<\/a><a class=\"footnote\" title=\"https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/#gsc.tab=0\" id=\"return-footnote-64-2\" href=\"#footnote-64-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a>.<\/p>\n<p class=\"Bodynt\" style=\"line-height: 115%;\">\n<div id=\"h5p-29\">\n<div class=\"h5p-iframe-wrapper\"><iframe id=\"h5p-iframe-29\" class=\"h5p-iframe\" data-content-id=\"29\" style=\"height:1px\" src=\"about:blank\" frameBorder=\"0\" scrolling=\"no\" title=\"Plant morphology fruit types 2\"><\/iframe><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-64-1\">https:\/\/www.treeguideuk.co.uk\/mini-guides\/conifer-cone\/ <a href=\"#return-footnote-64-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-64-2\">https:\/\/plantdatabase.kpu.ca\/#gsc.tab=0 <a href=\"#return-footnote-64-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":16,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-64","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":19,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/64","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":6,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/64\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":400,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/64\/revisions\/400"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/19"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/64\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=64"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=64"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=64"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/plantidentification\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=64"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}