{"id":701,"date":"2015-09-21T05:49:13","date_gmt":"2015-09-21T05:49:13","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/postconfederation\/?post_type=chapter&p=701"},"modified":"2019-07-12T23:03:12","modified_gmt":"2019-07-12T23:03:12","slug":"9-3-the-north-economy-and-territory","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/postconfederation\/chapter\/9-3-the-north-economy-and-territory\/","title":{"raw":"9.3 The North: Economy and Territory","rendered":"9.3 The North: Economy and Territory"},"content":{"raw":"In Canadian history, the concept of the North \u2014 What is it? Where is it? What does it mean? \u2014 has been a contested and debated subject. At various times during Canada\u2019s past, the geographic location of the North shifted as Canada acquired, surveyed, and mapped new territory. If we ask, \u201cWhere is the North?\u201d we may think of the provincial north (Fort St. John, British Columbia; Timmins, Ontario; northern Quebec; Labrador), the territorial north (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), or any land north of the 60th parallel.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_703\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"553\"]\"Map<\/a> Figure 9.9 The line between the north and the North is generally agreed to be the 60th parallel.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhichever location comes to mind, all are home to a diversity of Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. First Nations, Inuit, and M\u00e9tis peoples have made these places their home since time immemorial, and each of these peoples has specific territories and traditions. The North has also been central to the creation of particular narratives of Canadian identity. Historian Shelagh Grant has written that most southern Canadians \u201cview the Arctic in terms of southern impact, such as the effect of weather patterns, the potential of untapped resource wealth, or simply national pride in a unique, majestic landscape.\u201d[footnote]Shelagh Grant, \u201cArctic Wilderness - And Other Mythologies,\u201d Journal of Canadian Studies<\/i> 32.2 (1998): 35.[\/footnote] Just as the North moulds the nation, the nation fashions the North. The history of the North in Canada has been shaped by changing boundaries, changing priorities, and the development of a national, northward-looking imagination.\r\n

Canada First<\/h1>\r\nThe creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867 caused some English Canadians to consider what attributes would define their new identity as Canadians. A group called Canada First was formed in 1868 when five men from Ontario gathered to consider a future as Canadians, and not as British colonists. Historian Carl Berger argued that the Canada First movement used notions of the North to promote the idea that Canadians would rise to greatness in North America and abroad because of their northern character:\r\n[blockquote]The adjective \u201cnorthern\u201d came to symbolize energy, strength, self-reliance, health, and purity, and its opposite, \u201csouthern,\u201d was equated with decay and effeminacy, even libertinism, and disease. A lengthy catalogue of desirable national attributes resulting from the climate was compiled. No other weather was so conducive to maintaining health and stimulating robustness.[footnote]Carl Berger, The Sense of Power: Studies in the Ideas of Canadian Imperialism, 1867 - 1914 <\/i>(Toronto: University of Toronto Press), 129.[\/footnote][\/blockquote]\r\nThe idea that Canadians were hardy, masculine, and northern people stood in contrast with the United States to the south. However, Canada First members also wanted to contrast Canadians with peoples from other colonies within the British Empire. The idea that people from southern climates could not live in the North was taken directly from the concepts of Social Darwinism emerging at the time. It was used to underwrite a cool welcome to (or a door bolted against) immigration from the Mediterranean, the Caribbean, and the African-American diaspora. Social Darwinism took Darwin\u2019s theory of evolution \u2014 survival of the fittest and natural selection \u2014 and applied these ideas to society and politics. Canada First\u2019s doctrine argued that a northern climate meant only hardy, manly, and white peoples could live in Canada. This conveniently ignored the presence of Indigenous peoples but, to most Canadians at the time, Indigenous peoples were understood to be vanishing. With this \u201cicy white nationalism,\u201d as Eva Mackey has put it, whiteness, the rugged northern landscape, and climate came to signify Canada to Canadians.[footnote]Eva Mackey, \u201c\u201cDeath by Landscape\u201d: Race, Nature, and Gender in Canadian Nationalist Mythology,\" Canadian Woman Studies<\/i> 20.2 (2000): 126.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_713\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"763\"]\"A<\/a> Figure 9.10 The Chilkoot Pass at the height of the Klondike gold rush.[\/caption]\r\n

Territorial Expansion<\/h1>\r\nThe British government purchased \u201cRupert\u2019s Land and the North-Western Territory\u201d from the Hudson\u2019s Bay Company (HBC) in 1870. <\/b>Fearing annexation of the territory by the United States, Section 146 of the British North America Act<\/em> (1867) provided for the inclusion of the vast area into the newly created Dominion of Canada. This acquisition brought an influx of settlers, particularly from Ontario, into the Red River area, and led to the Red River Resistance by the M\u00e9tis and the creation of the \u201cpostage stamp\u201d province of Manitoba in 1871. It was not until 1905 that the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan were carved out of the territory and brought into Confederation. In 1912, the current borders of the prairie provinces and northern Ontario were established.\r\n\r\nFor much of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the far North, the lands North of 60, remained largely unknown to southern Canadians. It was not until 1880 that Britain transferred possession of the high Arctic islands to Canada. However, these islands were seen to be of little value to political leaders in Ottawa. Rather than being viewed as the home of the Inuit, the Arctic was mired in myth as the site of ill-fated expeditions in search of the Northwest Passage and thought to be a place of inhospitable climate; harsh landscape; and monstrous creatures such as whales, narwhals, and walruses.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_3049\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"768\"]\"Two<\/a> Figure 9.11 A footrace in Dawson City, ca. 1900.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Klondike gold rush of 1896 brought an influx of gold seekers to the North (especially from the United States), and the Canadian government responded by creating the Yukon Territory in 1898. Historians Ken S. Coates and William R. Morrison note that the Klondike gold rush \u201cis one of the few events in Canadian history \u2014 perhaps the only one \u2014 that has entered into the collective memory of the entire world.\u201d[footnote]Ken S. Coates and William R. Morrison, Land of the Midnight Sun: A History of the Yukon<\/i> (Montreal: McGill-Queen\u2019s University Press, 2005), 77.[\/footnote] The word [pb_glossary id=\"7817\"]Klondike[\/pb_glossary] is derived from Tr\u2019ond\u00ebk Hw\u00ebch\u2019in, the name of the First Nation upon whose territory gold was found. The rush to riches had devastating impacts on the environment and First Nations cultures in the region, but it is the romance of the gold rush that remains ingrained in the Canadian imagination through the poems of Robert W. Service (1874-1958) , the books of popular historian Pierre Berton (1920-2004), and the famous images of\u00a0 stampeders climbing the treacherous Chilkoot Pass route to the goldfields.\r\n
\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_712\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"2048\"]\"A<\/a> Figure 9.12 Robert W. Service, seen here in 1941 with screen star Marlene Dietrich (1901-1992), struck gold with poetry.[\/caption]\r\n

Listen to this recording of\u00a0The Cremation of Sam McGee<\/em><\/a>.\u00a0Service reads one of his best known poems, The Cremation of Sam McGee<\/em>.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nThe gold rush reminded the Canadian government of the need to assert its sovereignty in the North, and, in 1904, the Liberal government of Wilfrid Laurier (1841-1919) commissioned the Canadian Arctic Expedition and the ship Arctic<\/i> to help with this task. From 1913 to 1918, the Canadian Arctic Expedition journeyed through the Arctic and found major errors in previous maps. The expedition actually added four new islands to Canada\u2019s territory that were previously unknown by the government. During this time, missionaries and the Royal North West\/Canadian Mounted Police established outposts throughout the provincial and territorial North. These outposts, along with the Hudson Bay Company (HBC) stores, became central to the region\u2019s colonization and administration prior to World War II.\r\n\r\nDespite the acquisition of Rupert\u2019s Land by Canada, the HBC remained a strong presence in the North well into the 20th century. In 1920, the company marked its 250th anniversary with the release of the silent film The Romance of the Far Fur Country<\/i>. The film reinforced the prominent role of the HBC in Canada and provided southern audiences with one of their earliest glimpses into life in the Arctic. Two years later, the American film Nanook<\/i> of the North <\/i>(nanook<\/em> means \u201cpolar bear\u201d in the Inuktitut language) was a huge success at the box office and contributed further to the mystique of the North and its peoples.\r\n

[caption id=\"attachment_714\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"800\"]\"Movie<\/a> Figure 9.13 Poster for Nanook of the North. [Long Description]<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n

Watch Nanook of the North<\/em><\/a>, a remarkable (if ethnographically unreliable) documentary.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n

World War II and the Cold War<\/h1>\r\nWorld War II\u00a0 brought rapid and profound change to the North and to Indigenous peoples in the region. When the United States and Canada declared war with Japan in December 1941, the Pacific coast of North America was particularly vulnerable to a Japanese attack. To aid the movement of troops and supplies into the North, work began on the [pb_glossary id=\"7820\"]Alaska Highway[\/pb_glossary] in Fort Nelson, BC, in 1942. With Canada\u2019s permission, 10,000 American troops and workers came to northern British Columbia and the Yukon to build a 1500-mile (2400-kilometre) road to Alaska. As with the gold rush, the North was transformed almost overnight. American troops remained in the North not only to build the highway but also to facilitate defence and the transportation of military supplies across the North.\r\n\r\nPrior to the war, it was possible for many Indigenous peoples in the North to live their lives without interacting with Canadian institutions and peoples. However, concerns about sovereignty and security quickly brought scientific and military projects into the everyday lives of Indigenous peoples. A mine near Great Bear Lake in the Northwest Territories\u00a0 supplied uranium ore for the Manhattan Project to develop the first atomic bomb. The D\u00e9l\u012fne First Nation of Sahtu worked to extract the radioactive materials and were never informed by the government of uranium\u2019s deadly effects: many died from various forms of cancer linked to their exposure.[footnote]Peter C. van Wyck, The<\/i> Highway of the Atom <\/i>(Montreal: McGill-Queen\u2019s University Press, 2010).[\/footnote] Advancements in technology following the war meant that the Arctic very quickly went from a place of mystery to a place that could be accessed, studied, defended, and monitored. During the 1950s, the [pb_glossary id=\"7821\"]Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line[\/pb_glossary] was built across the North to provide radar surveillance and protection from a Soviet airborne invasion or missile attack via the Arctic Circle. Although such an invasion never came, the United States military maintained a strong presence in the North throughout the Cold War.\r\n

High Arctic Relocation<\/h1>\r\nAs southern Canadians came to know more about the North, the federal government extended the postwar welfare state to Northern peoples. This was not simply an offer of social programs; the federal government wanted to resettle Indigenous peoples off the land and into planned settlements in an attempt to reproduce life as it was for southern Canadians. This rapid transformation in people\u2019s lives often meant disruption of traditional ways of knowing and the break-up of family groups. The need for energy and other resources in the postwar years also brought resource extraction to the North. In the quest for resources, traditional hunting grounds were destroyed and settlements were relocated to make way for mining operations.\r\n\r\nIn the late summer of 1953, the government forcibly relocated several Inuit families from Inukjuak, Quebec, in the name of Canadian arctic sovereignty. The families, along with a single RCMP constable, were sent to Resolute Bay and Grise Fiord in the Northwest Territories as part of a government relocation program. Three other families from Pond Inlet were sent to teach the Inukjuak families to survive in the high Arctic. All of these families were told they were being sent north so that they could be provided better hunting and living opportunities. In 1955, more people were relocated from Inukjuak and Pond Inlet to Resolute. The high Arctic was completely different than the home territories of these families, and they were sent North with poor supplies and no knowledge of the terrain or wildlife. In 1996, the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples found that the government relocated these Inuit families for several dubious reasons:\r\n