![\"Piles](\"http:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2015\/01\/Thetriumphofdeath.jpg\")
<\/a> Figure 3.6 Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death (ca. 1562) represents the plague years. England and much of Europe were traumatized by epidemics and war.[\/caption]\n\nWhile the Black Death<\/strong> (the plague) ravaged Europe in the 14th\u00a0century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years' War<\/strong> (1337-1453)\u00a0over\u00a0the question of\u00a0who would succeed\u00a0to the throne\u00a0of France. The lengthy conflict\u00a0had a significant political impact for both sides. In England, it strengthened the role of Parliament<\/strong>\u00a0simply because Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to turn to the representative assembly\u00a0repeatedly for\u00a0funds. As these meetings occurred, the two levels of Parliament -- the House of Lords and the House of Commons -- began to take shape. A corresponding national assembly did not appear in France because Phillip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors considered it repugnant; instead they worked assiduously to build a strong monarchical regime. These years of conflict had the added effect of catalyzing what would later be called \"national\" identities in both countries.\n\nThe Hundred Years' War also brought on a period of domestic strife in England. The War of the Roses ended when Henry Tudor (1457-1509) (subsequently Henry VII) \u00a0defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. The powers of Parliament waned, as did that of the lesser royals, called the aristocracy<\/strong>. Henry VII\u2019s governing council also dealt with recalcitrant nobles by using the Star Chamber, which was a judicial body that undermined traditions of English common law, and by promoting the interests of the middle class. Merchants, heavily concentrated in England's port towns, favoured policies that enabled and protected trade; their concerns thus became the concerns of the Crown as well. And merchants favoured seaborne trade.\n\nIt was under\u00a0Henry VII, then, that England made its first official foray into overseas exploration. In May 1497 (some historians claim it was seven years later), the king allowed John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499), a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia.[footnote]William Gilbert, \u201cBeothuk-European Contact in the 16th Century: A Re-evaluation of\u00a0the Documentary Evidence,\u201d Acadiensis<\/em>\u00a0 XXXX, no. 1 (Winter\/Spring 2011): 24-44; R.\u00a0A.\u00a0Skelton, \u201cCABOT, JOHN,\u201d in Dictionary of Canadian Biography<\/i>\u00a01 (University of Toronto\/Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2003). Accessed November 30, 2014, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/en\/bio\/cabot_john_1E.html.[\/footnote] Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland in June of that year and claimed it on behalf of the king. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by Henry VII\u00a0who expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot\u2019s death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry lost interest in overseas exploration.\n\nWhile\u00a0Spain and Portugal began the process of colonization, England found itself in the midst of a political and religious crisis for much of the 16th century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot\u2019s voyages gave England a chip they could play when it came time to match other European claims to the North American mainland.\nReligion and Politics in the 16th\u00a0Century<\/h2>\nThrough most of the medieval period, secular leaders in England and France relied on a connection to the Roman Catholic Church to underwrite their legitimacy. By the early 16th\u00a0century, however, the Church itself had come under fire. The intellectual currents of the Renaissance played a role in this change, but so too did the practices of the Church, including clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical absenteeism. The Church\u2019s failings led Martin Luther (1483-1546), a Catholic priest in Germany, to spark the Protestant Reformation<\/strong> in 1517. Protestant sects arose throughout northwestern Europe, including in England and France (where they were often called Huguenots<\/strong>). Breaking with Rome was a serious business and the decision to become Protestant or remain Catholic in many cases had as much to do with power struggles\u00a0as it did with faith.\n\nThe English Reformation<\/strong> began officially under\u00a0Henry VIII (1491-1547) who ruled from 1509 to 1547 and was\u00a0driven by court politics.\u00a0Henry's break with the Pope\u00a0led\u00a0Parliament to pass legislation that\u00a0made the king the head of the new\u00a0Church of England <\/strong>and\u00a0required all priests in England to swear allegiance to the king\u2019s church. In terms of doctrine, the new\u00a0Church, also called the Anglican Church<\/strong>, made few changes. In terms of economic\u00a0power, however, Henry VIII gained an advantage when he dissolved all the monasteries in England and confiscated their wealth as a means to build his treasury and weaken that of the Vatican.\n\nThe English Reformation did not come about without local resistance.\u00a0Henry's successors kept the country divided and in a state of civil war until the late 16th century. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558\u20131603), some stability was achieved -- enough to allow for the emergence\u00a0of new sects of Protestants to appear, including the Puritans and the Quakers,\u00a0both of which\u00a0would play a pivotal role in the colonization of North America in the 17th century.\n\nThe French monarchy had little political reason to turn to Protestantism in the early 16th\u00a0century. Enjoying relative\u00a0religious stability in the 1520s, King Francis I (r.1515-1547) looked for possible ways to catch up with the Spanish in the realm of overseas exploration and colonization. In 1524, he sponsored a voyage by the Florentine navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) to stake a claim in the New World and discover the Northwest Passage. During his voyage (1523-24), Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coastline from modern-day South Carolina to New York. A decade later, Francis sponsored two voyages by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). While Cartier\u00a0failed to find a northern route to Asia, he did\u00a0survey the St. Lawrence River and made valuable contacts with the local\u00a0population. Nevertheless, the discoveries did not inspire Francis to support a permanent settlement in the western Atlantic\u00a0at that time.\n\nSoon the window of opportunity slammed shut. Protestant factions began springing up across France at mid-century, leading to religious riots. The worst of these occurred on St. Bartholomew\u2019s Day, August 24, 1572. Shortly after the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, Catholics led by Henry of Guise viciously attacked Protestants in Paris. Sectarian civil war ensued.\u00a0A group of Catholic moderates finally ended the strife when they concluded that domestic tranquility was more important than religious doctrine. Moreover, the last man standing in a three-way conflict over religion and succession was\u00a0the Protestant Henry of Navarre. After he ascended to the throne\u00a0as\u00a0Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Nine years later\u00a0he issued the Edict of Nantes<\/strong> in 1598, which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship and brought stability to the country. Henry IV\u2019s tentative nod to religious toleration put France at last in a position to renew efforts at exploration and transatlantic trade.\n\nKey Points<\/h2>\n- Political conflict between France and England and internal strife forced changes in the shape and character of government in the two countries.<\/li>\n \t
- Competition across the Channel extended to belief systems during the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.<\/li>\n \t
- These conflicts deterred the English and the French from participating in the earliest stages of transatlantic commerce and invasion.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\n
Attributions<\/h2>\nFigure\u00a03.6<\/strong>\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.","rendered":"In the period before contact with the Americas, the countries of England and France, as they appear on the map today, had not yet\u00a0taken shape. For much of the Middle Ages, both regions faced invasions by Germanic and Scandinavian tribes from northern and central Europe and almost continuous internal instability. It was the principal goal of\u00a0monarchs in England and France to consolidate their power; their expansion across the Atlantic can only be understood within this context. However, they lagged behind the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch because of the almost constant state of war across the Channel\u00a0as well as the emergence of the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th\u00a0century.\n<\/p>\n
England and France at War<\/h2>\n![\"Piles](\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/22\/2016\/10\/Thetriumphofdeath-300x212.jpg\")
<\/a>Figure 3.6 Pieter Bruegel’s The Triumph of Death (ca. 1562) represents the plague years. England and much of Europe were traumatized by epidemics and war.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\nWhile the Black Death<\/strong> (the plague) ravaged Europe in the 14th\u00a0century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years’ War<\/strong> (1337-1453)\u00a0over\u00a0the question of\u00a0who would succeed\u00a0to the throne\u00a0of France. The lengthy conflict\u00a0had a significant political impact for both sides. In England, it strengthened the role of Parliament<\/strong>\u00a0simply because Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to turn to the representative assembly\u00a0repeatedly for\u00a0funds. As these meetings occurred, the two levels of Parliament — the House of Lords and the House of Commons — began to take shape. A corresponding national assembly did not appear in France because Phillip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors considered it repugnant; instead they worked assiduously to build a strong monarchical regime. These years of conflict had the added effect of catalyzing what would later be called “national” identities in both countries.<\/p>\nThe Hundred Years’ War also brought on a period of domestic strife in England. The War of the Roses ended when Henry Tudor (1457-1509) (subsequently Henry VII) \u00a0defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. The powers of Parliament waned, as did that of the lesser royals, called the aristocracy<\/strong>. Henry VII\u2019s governing council also dealt with recalcitrant nobles by using the Star Chamber, which was a judicial body that undermined traditions of English common law, and by promoting the interests of the middle class. Merchants, heavily concentrated in England’s port towns, favoured policies that enabled and protected trade; their concerns thus became the concerns of the Crown as well. And merchants favoured seaborne trade.<\/p>\nIt was under\u00a0Henry VII, then, that England made its first official foray into overseas exploration. In May 1497 (some historians claim it was seven years later), the king allowed John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499), a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia.[1]<\/sup><\/a> Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland in June of that year and claimed it on behalf of the king. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by Henry VII\u00a0who expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot\u2019s death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry lost interest in overseas exploration.<\/p>\nWhile\u00a0Spain and Portugal began the process of colonization, England found itself in the midst of a political and religious crisis for much of the 16th century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot\u2019s voyages gave England a chip they could play when it came time to match other European claims to the North American mainland.<\/p>\n
Religion and Politics in the 16th\u00a0Century<\/h2>\n
Through most of the medieval period, secular leaders in England and France relied on a connection to the Roman Catholic Church to underwrite their legitimacy. By the early 16th\u00a0century, however, the Church itself had come under fire. The intellectual currents of the Renaissance played a role in this change, but so too did the practices of the Church, including clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical absenteeism. The Church\u2019s failings led Martin Luther (1483-1546), a Catholic priest in Germany, to spark the Protestant Reformation<\/strong> in 1517. Protestant sects arose throughout northwestern Europe, including in England and France (where they were often called Huguenots<\/strong>). Breaking with Rome was a serious business and the decision to become Protestant or remain Catholic in many cases had as much to do with power struggles\u00a0as it did with faith.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation<\/strong> began officially under\u00a0Henry VIII (1491-1547) who ruled from 1509 to 1547 and was\u00a0driven by court politics.\u00a0Henry’s break with the Pope\u00a0led\u00a0Parliament to pass legislation that\u00a0made the king the head of the new\u00a0Church of England <\/strong>and\u00a0required all priests in England to swear allegiance to the king\u2019s church. In terms of doctrine, the new\u00a0Church, also called the Anglican Church<\/strong>, made few changes. In terms of economic\u00a0power, however, Henry VIII gained an advantage when he dissolved all the monasteries in England and confiscated their wealth as a means to build his treasury and weaken that of the Vatican.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation did not come about without local resistance.\u00a0Henry’s successors kept the country divided and in a state of civil war until the late 16th century. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558\u20131603), some stability was achieved — enough to allow for the emergence\u00a0of new sects of Protestants to appear, including the Puritans and the Quakers,\u00a0both of which\u00a0would play a pivotal role in the colonization of North America in the 17th century.<\/p>\n
The French monarchy had little political reason to turn to Protestantism in the early 16th\u00a0century. Enjoying relative\u00a0religious stability in the 1520s, King Francis I (r.1515-1547) looked for possible ways to catch up with the Spanish in the realm of overseas exploration and colonization. In 1524, he sponsored a voyage by the Florentine navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) to stake a claim in the New World and discover the Northwest Passage. During his voyage (1523-24), Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coastline from modern-day South Carolina to New York. A decade later, Francis sponsored two voyages by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). While Cartier\u00a0failed to find a northern route to Asia, he did\u00a0survey the St. Lawrence River and made valuable contacts with the local\u00a0population. Nevertheless, the discoveries did not inspire Francis to support a permanent settlement in the western Atlantic\u00a0at that time.<\/p>\n
Soon the window of opportunity slammed shut. Protestant factions began springing up across France at mid-century, leading to religious riots. The worst of these occurred on St. Bartholomew\u2019s Day, August 24, 1572. Shortly after the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, Catholics led by Henry of Guise viciously attacked Protestants in Paris. Sectarian civil war ensued.\u00a0A group of Catholic moderates finally ended the strife when they concluded that domestic tranquility was more important than religious doctrine. Moreover, the last man standing in a three-way conflict over religion and succession was\u00a0the Protestant Henry of Navarre. After he ascended to the throne\u00a0as\u00a0Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Nine years later\u00a0he issued the Edict of Nantes<\/strong> in 1598, which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship and brought stability to the country. Henry IV\u2019s tentative nod to religious toleration put France at last in a position to renew efforts at exploration and transatlantic trade.<\/p>\n\nKey Points<\/h2>\n\n- Political conflict between France and England and internal strife forced changes in the shape and character of government in the two countries.<\/li>\n
- Competition across the Channel extended to belief systems during the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.<\/li>\n
- These conflicts deterred the English and the French from participating in the earliest stages of transatlantic commerce and invasion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
Attributions<\/h2>\n
Figure\u00a03.6<\/strong>
\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.<\/p>\n
- William Gilbert, \u201cBeothuk-European Contact in the 16th Century: A Re-evaluation of\u00a0the Documentary Evidence,\u201d Acadiensis<\/em>\u00a0 XXXX, no. 1 (Winter\/Spring 2011): 24-44; R.\u00a0A.\u00a0Skelton, \u201cCABOT, JOHN,\u201d in Dictionary of Canadian Biography<\/i>\u00a01 (University of Toronto\/Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2003). Accessed November 30, 2014, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/en\/bio\/cabot_john_1E.html. ↵<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[62],"class_list":["post-6399","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","license-cc-by-sa"],"part":6389,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6747,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions\/6747"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/6389"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6399"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=6399"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
Key Points<\/h2>\n- Political conflict between France and England and internal strife forced changes in the shape and character of government in the two countries.<\/li>\n \t
- Competition across the Channel extended to belief systems during the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.<\/li>\n \t
- These conflicts deterred the English and the French from participating in the earliest stages of transatlantic commerce and invasion.<\/li>\n<\/ul><\/div>\n
Attributions<\/h2>\nFigure\u00a03.6<\/strong>\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.","rendered":"In the period before contact with the Americas, the countries of England and France, as they appear on the map today, had not yet\u00a0taken shape. For much of the Middle Ages, both regions faced invasions by Germanic and Scandinavian tribes from northern and central Europe and almost continuous internal instability. It was the principal goal of\u00a0monarchs in England and France to consolidate their power; their expansion across the Atlantic can only be understood within this context. However, they lagged behind the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch because of the almost constant state of war across the Channel\u00a0as well as the emergence of the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th\u00a0century.\n<\/p>\n
England and France at War<\/h2>\n<\/a>Figure 3.6 Pieter Bruegel’s The Triumph of Death (ca. 1562) represents the plague years. England and much of Europe were traumatized by epidemics and war.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\nWhile the Black Death<\/strong> (the plague) ravaged Europe in the 14th\u00a0century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years’ War<\/strong> (1337-1453)\u00a0over\u00a0the question of\u00a0who would succeed\u00a0to the throne\u00a0of France. The lengthy conflict\u00a0had a significant political impact for both sides. In England, it strengthened the role of Parliament<\/strong>\u00a0simply because Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to turn to the representative assembly\u00a0repeatedly for\u00a0funds. As these meetings occurred, the two levels of Parliament — the House of Lords and the House of Commons — began to take shape. A corresponding national assembly did not appear in France because Phillip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors considered it repugnant; instead they worked assiduously to build a strong monarchical regime. These years of conflict had the added effect of catalyzing what would later be called “national” identities in both countries.<\/p>\nThe Hundred Years’ War also brought on a period of domestic strife in England. The War of the Roses ended when Henry Tudor (1457-1509) (subsequently Henry VII) \u00a0defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. The powers of Parliament waned, as did that of the lesser royals, called the aristocracy<\/strong>. Henry VII\u2019s governing council also dealt with recalcitrant nobles by using the Star Chamber, which was a judicial body that undermined traditions of English common law, and by promoting the interests of the middle class. Merchants, heavily concentrated in England’s port towns, favoured policies that enabled and protected trade; their concerns thus became the concerns of the Crown as well. And merchants favoured seaborne trade.<\/p>\nIt was under\u00a0Henry VII, then, that England made its first official foray into overseas exploration. In May 1497 (some historians claim it was seven years later), the king allowed John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499), a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia.[1]<\/sup><\/a> Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland in June of that year and claimed it on behalf of the king. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by Henry VII\u00a0who expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot\u2019s death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry lost interest in overseas exploration.<\/p>\nWhile\u00a0Spain and Portugal began the process of colonization, England found itself in the midst of a political and religious crisis for much of the 16th century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot\u2019s voyages gave England a chip they could play when it came time to match other European claims to the North American mainland.<\/p>\n
Religion and Politics in the 16th\u00a0Century<\/h2>\n
Through most of the medieval period, secular leaders in England and France relied on a connection to the Roman Catholic Church to underwrite their legitimacy. By the early 16th\u00a0century, however, the Church itself had come under fire. The intellectual currents of the Renaissance played a role in this change, but so too did the practices of the Church, including clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical absenteeism. The Church\u2019s failings led Martin Luther (1483-1546), a Catholic priest in Germany, to spark the Protestant Reformation<\/strong> in 1517. Protestant sects arose throughout northwestern Europe, including in England and France (where they were often called Huguenots<\/strong>). Breaking with Rome was a serious business and the decision to become Protestant or remain Catholic in many cases had as much to do with power struggles\u00a0as it did with faith.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation<\/strong> began officially under\u00a0Henry VIII (1491-1547) who ruled from 1509 to 1547 and was\u00a0driven by court politics.\u00a0Henry’s break with the Pope\u00a0led\u00a0Parliament to pass legislation that\u00a0made the king the head of the new\u00a0Church of England <\/strong>and\u00a0required all priests in England to swear allegiance to the king\u2019s church. In terms of doctrine, the new\u00a0Church, also called the Anglican Church<\/strong>, made few changes. In terms of economic\u00a0power, however, Henry VIII gained an advantage when he dissolved all the monasteries in England and confiscated their wealth as a means to build his treasury and weaken that of the Vatican.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation did not come about without local resistance.\u00a0Henry’s successors kept the country divided and in a state of civil war until the late 16th century. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558\u20131603), some stability was achieved — enough to allow for the emergence\u00a0of new sects of Protestants to appear, including the Puritans and the Quakers,\u00a0both of which\u00a0would play a pivotal role in the colonization of North America in the 17th century.<\/p>\n
The French monarchy had little political reason to turn to Protestantism in the early 16th\u00a0century. Enjoying relative\u00a0religious stability in the 1520s, King Francis I (r.1515-1547) looked for possible ways to catch up with the Spanish in the realm of overseas exploration and colonization. In 1524, he sponsored a voyage by the Florentine navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) to stake a claim in the New World and discover the Northwest Passage. During his voyage (1523-24), Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coastline from modern-day South Carolina to New York. A decade later, Francis sponsored two voyages by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). While Cartier\u00a0failed to find a northern route to Asia, he did\u00a0survey the St. Lawrence River and made valuable contacts with the local\u00a0population. Nevertheless, the discoveries did not inspire Francis to support a permanent settlement in the western Atlantic\u00a0at that time.<\/p>\n
Soon the window of opportunity slammed shut. Protestant factions began springing up across France at mid-century, leading to religious riots. The worst of these occurred on St. Bartholomew\u2019s Day, August 24, 1572. Shortly after the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, Catholics led by Henry of Guise viciously attacked Protestants in Paris. Sectarian civil war ensued.\u00a0A group of Catholic moderates finally ended the strife when they concluded that domestic tranquility was more important than religious doctrine. Moreover, the last man standing in a three-way conflict over religion and succession was\u00a0the Protestant Henry of Navarre. After he ascended to the throne\u00a0as\u00a0Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Nine years later\u00a0he issued the Edict of Nantes<\/strong> in 1598, which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship and brought stability to the country. Henry IV\u2019s tentative nod to religious toleration put France at last in a position to renew efforts at exploration and transatlantic trade.<\/p>\n\nKey Points<\/h2>\n\n- Political conflict between France and England and internal strife forced changes in the shape and character of government in the two countries.<\/li>\n
- Competition across the Channel extended to belief systems during the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.<\/li>\n
- These conflicts deterred the English and the French from participating in the earliest stages of transatlantic commerce and invasion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
Attributions<\/h2>\n
Figure\u00a03.6<\/strong>
\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.<\/p>\n
- William Gilbert, \u201cBeothuk-European Contact in the 16th Century: A Re-evaluation of\u00a0the Documentary Evidence,\u201d Acadiensis<\/em>\u00a0 XXXX, no. 1 (Winter\/Spring 2011): 24-44; R.\u00a0A.\u00a0Skelton, \u201cCABOT, JOHN,\u201d in Dictionary of Canadian Biography<\/i>\u00a01 (University of Toronto\/Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2003). Accessed November 30, 2014, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/en\/bio\/cabot_john_1E.html. ↵<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[62],"class_list":["post-6399","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","license-cc-by-sa"],"part":6389,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6747,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions\/6747"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/6389"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6399"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=6399"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
Attributions<\/h2>\nFigure\u00a03.6<\/strong>\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.","rendered":"In the period before contact with the Americas, the countries of England and France, as they appear on the map today, had not yet\u00a0taken shape. For much of the Middle Ages, both regions faced invasions by Germanic and Scandinavian tribes from northern and central Europe and almost continuous internal instability. It was the principal goal of\u00a0monarchs in England and France to consolidate their power; their expansion across the Atlantic can only be understood within this context. However, they lagged behind the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch because of the almost constant state of war across the Channel\u00a0as well as the emergence of the Protestant Reformation in the early 16th\u00a0century.\n<\/p>\n
England and France at War<\/h2>\n<\/a>Figure 3.6 Pieter Bruegel’s The Triumph of Death (ca. 1562) represents the plague years. England and much of Europe were traumatized by epidemics and war.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\nWhile the Black Death<\/strong> (the plague) ravaged Europe in the 14th\u00a0century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years’ War<\/strong> (1337-1453)\u00a0over\u00a0the question of\u00a0who would succeed\u00a0to the throne\u00a0of France. The lengthy conflict\u00a0had a significant political impact for both sides. In England, it strengthened the role of Parliament<\/strong>\u00a0simply because Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to turn to the representative assembly\u00a0repeatedly for\u00a0funds. As these meetings occurred, the two levels of Parliament — the House of Lords and the House of Commons — began to take shape. A corresponding national assembly did not appear in France because Phillip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors considered it repugnant; instead they worked assiduously to build a strong monarchical regime. These years of conflict had the added effect of catalyzing what would later be called “national” identities in both countries.<\/p>\nThe Hundred Years’ War also brought on a period of domestic strife in England. The War of the Roses ended when Henry Tudor (1457-1509) (subsequently Henry VII) \u00a0defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. The powers of Parliament waned, as did that of the lesser royals, called the aristocracy<\/strong>. Henry VII\u2019s governing council also dealt with recalcitrant nobles by using the Star Chamber, which was a judicial body that undermined traditions of English common law, and by promoting the interests of the middle class. Merchants, heavily concentrated in England’s port towns, favoured policies that enabled and protected trade; their concerns thus became the concerns of the Crown as well. And merchants favoured seaborne trade.<\/p>\nIt was under\u00a0Henry VII, then, that England made its first official foray into overseas exploration. In May 1497 (some historians claim it was seven years later), the king allowed John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499), a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia.[1]<\/sup><\/a> Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland in June of that year and claimed it on behalf of the king. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by Henry VII\u00a0who expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot\u2019s death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry lost interest in overseas exploration.<\/p>\nWhile\u00a0Spain and Portugal began the process of colonization, England found itself in the midst of a political and religious crisis for much of the 16th century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot\u2019s voyages gave England a chip they could play when it came time to match other European claims to the North American mainland.<\/p>\n
Religion and Politics in the 16th\u00a0Century<\/h2>\n
Through most of the medieval period, secular leaders in England and France relied on a connection to the Roman Catholic Church to underwrite their legitimacy. By the early 16th\u00a0century, however, the Church itself had come under fire. The intellectual currents of the Renaissance played a role in this change, but so too did the practices of the Church, including clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical absenteeism. The Church\u2019s failings led Martin Luther (1483-1546), a Catholic priest in Germany, to spark the Protestant Reformation<\/strong> in 1517. Protestant sects arose throughout northwestern Europe, including in England and France (where they were often called Huguenots<\/strong>). Breaking with Rome was a serious business and the decision to become Protestant or remain Catholic in many cases had as much to do with power struggles\u00a0as it did with faith.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation<\/strong> began officially under\u00a0Henry VIII (1491-1547) who ruled from 1509 to 1547 and was\u00a0driven by court politics.\u00a0Henry’s break with the Pope\u00a0led\u00a0Parliament to pass legislation that\u00a0made the king the head of the new\u00a0Church of England <\/strong>and\u00a0required all priests in England to swear allegiance to the king\u2019s church. In terms of doctrine, the new\u00a0Church, also called the Anglican Church<\/strong>, made few changes. In terms of economic\u00a0power, however, Henry VIII gained an advantage when he dissolved all the monasteries in England and confiscated their wealth as a means to build his treasury and weaken that of the Vatican.<\/p>\nThe English Reformation did not come about without local resistance.\u00a0Henry’s successors kept the country divided and in a state of civil war until the late 16th century. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558\u20131603), some stability was achieved — enough to allow for the emergence\u00a0of new sects of Protestants to appear, including the Puritans and the Quakers,\u00a0both of which\u00a0would play a pivotal role in the colonization of North America in the 17th century.<\/p>\n
The French monarchy had little political reason to turn to Protestantism in the early 16th\u00a0century. Enjoying relative\u00a0religious stability in the 1520s, King Francis I (r.1515-1547) looked for possible ways to catch up with the Spanish in the realm of overseas exploration and colonization. In 1524, he sponsored a voyage by the Florentine navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) to stake a claim in the New World and discover the Northwest Passage. During his voyage (1523-24), Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coastline from modern-day South Carolina to New York. A decade later, Francis sponsored two voyages by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). While Cartier\u00a0failed to find a northern route to Asia, he did\u00a0survey the St. Lawrence River and made valuable contacts with the local\u00a0population. Nevertheless, the discoveries did not inspire Francis to support a permanent settlement in the western Atlantic\u00a0at that time.<\/p>\n
Soon the window of opportunity slammed shut. Protestant factions began springing up across France at mid-century, leading to religious riots. The worst of these occurred on St. Bartholomew\u2019s Day, August 24, 1572. Shortly after the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, Catholics led by Henry of Guise viciously attacked Protestants in Paris. Sectarian civil war ensued.\u00a0A group of Catholic moderates finally ended the strife when they concluded that domestic tranquility was more important than religious doctrine. Moreover, the last man standing in a three-way conflict over religion and succession was\u00a0the Protestant Henry of Navarre. After he ascended to the throne\u00a0as\u00a0Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Nine years later\u00a0he issued the Edict of Nantes<\/strong> in 1598, which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship and brought stability to the country. Henry IV\u2019s tentative nod to religious toleration put France at last in a position to renew efforts at exploration and transatlantic trade.<\/p>\n\nKey Points<\/h2>\n\n- Political conflict between France and England and internal strife forced changes in the shape and character of government in the two countries.<\/li>\n
- Competition across the Channel extended to belief systems during the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation.<\/li>\n
- These conflicts deterred the English and the French from participating in the earliest stages of transatlantic commerce and invasion.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n
Attributions<\/h2>\n
Figure\u00a03.6<\/strong>
\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.<\/p>\n
- William Gilbert, \u201cBeothuk-European Contact in the 16th Century: A Re-evaluation of\u00a0the Documentary Evidence,\u201d Acadiensis<\/em>\u00a0 XXXX, no. 1 (Winter\/Spring 2011): 24-44; R.\u00a0A.\u00a0Skelton, \u201cCABOT, JOHN,\u201d in Dictionary of Canadian Biography<\/i>\u00a01 (University of Toronto\/Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2003). Accessed November 30, 2014, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/en\/bio\/cabot_john_1E.html. ↵<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[62],"class_list":["post-6399","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","license-cc-by-sa"],"part":6389,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6747,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions\/6747"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/6389"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6399"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=6399"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}
<\/a>While the Black Death<\/strong> (the plague) ravaged Europe in the 14th\u00a0century, England and France descended into the Hundred Years’ War<\/strong> (1337-1453)\u00a0over\u00a0the question of\u00a0who would succeed\u00a0to the throne\u00a0of France. The lengthy conflict\u00a0had a significant political impact for both sides. In England, it strengthened the role of Parliament<\/strong>\u00a0simply because Edward III (r. 1312-1377) and his successors had to turn to the representative assembly\u00a0repeatedly for\u00a0funds. As these meetings occurred, the two levels of Parliament — the House of Lords and the House of Commons — began to take shape. A corresponding national assembly did not appear in France because Phillip VI (r. 1328-1350) and his successors considered it repugnant; instead they worked assiduously to build a strong monarchical regime. These years of conflict had the added effect of catalyzing what would later be called “national” identities in both countries.<\/p>\n The Hundred Years’ War also brought on a period of domestic strife in England. The War of the Roses ended when Henry Tudor (1457-1509) (subsequently Henry VII) \u00a0defeated his rival in 1485. In the Tudor dynasty, the monarchy became the main political force in England. The powers of Parliament waned, as did that of the lesser royals, called the aristocracy<\/strong>. Henry VII\u2019s governing council also dealt with recalcitrant nobles by using the Star Chamber, which was a judicial body that undermined traditions of English common law, and by promoting the interests of the middle class. Merchants, heavily concentrated in England’s port towns, favoured policies that enabled and protected trade; their concerns thus became the concerns of the Crown as well. And merchants favoured seaborne trade.<\/p>\n It was under\u00a0Henry VII, then, that England made its first official foray into overseas exploration. In May 1497 (some historians claim it was seven years later), the king allowed John Cabot (ca. 1450-1499), a Venetian mariner living in London, to sail under the English flag in an attempt to find a northern route to Asia.[1]<\/sup><\/a> Cabot reached what he called Newfoundland in June of that year and claimed it on behalf of the king. He made a second voyage in 1498, funded in part by Henry VII\u00a0who expected to reap the financial rewards of the journey. However, after Cabot\u2019s death, his crew, led by his son Sebastian, failed to find any precious metals, so Henry lost interest in overseas exploration.<\/p>\n While\u00a0Spain and Portugal began the process of colonization, England found itself in the midst of a political and religious crisis for much of the 16th century. Events at home took precedence over any further state-sponsored oceanic voyages. However, Cabot\u2019s voyages gave England a chip they could play when it came time to match other European claims to the North American mainland.<\/p>\n Through most of the medieval period, secular leaders in England and France relied on a connection to the Roman Catholic Church to underwrite their legitimacy. By the early 16th\u00a0century, however, the Church itself had come under fire. The intellectual currents of the Renaissance played a role in this change, but so too did the practices of the Church, including clerical immorality, clerical ignorance, and clerical absenteeism. The Church\u2019s failings led Martin Luther (1483-1546), a Catholic priest in Germany, to spark the Protestant Reformation<\/strong> in 1517. Protestant sects arose throughout northwestern Europe, including in England and France (where they were often called Huguenots<\/strong>). Breaking with Rome was a serious business and the decision to become Protestant or remain Catholic in many cases had as much to do with power struggles\u00a0as it did with faith.<\/p>\n The English Reformation<\/strong> began officially under\u00a0Henry VIII (1491-1547) who ruled from 1509 to 1547 and was\u00a0driven by court politics.\u00a0Henry’s break with the Pope\u00a0led\u00a0Parliament to pass legislation that\u00a0made the king the head of the new\u00a0Church of England <\/strong>and\u00a0required all priests in England to swear allegiance to the king\u2019s church. In terms of doctrine, the new\u00a0Church, also called the Anglican Church<\/strong>, made few changes. In terms of economic\u00a0power, however, Henry VIII gained an advantage when he dissolved all the monasteries in England and confiscated their wealth as a means to build his treasury and weaken that of the Vatican.<\/p>\n The English Reformation did not come about without local resistance.\u00a0Henry’s successors kept the country divided and in a state of civil war until the late 16th century. Under Elizabeth I (r. 1558\u20131603), some stability was achieved — enough to allow for the emergence\u00a0of new sects of Protestants to appear, including the Puritans and the Quakers,\u00a0both of which\u00a0would play a pivotal role in the colonization of North America in the 17th century.<\/p>\n The French monarchy had little political reason to turn to Protestantism in the early 16th\u00a0century. Enjoying relative\u00a0religious stability in the 1520s, King Francis I (r.1515-1547) looked for possible ways to catch up with the Spanish in the realm of overseas exploration and colonization. In 1524, he sponsored a voyage by the Florentine navigator, Giovanni da Verrazzano (1485-1528) to stake a claim in the New World and discover the Northwest Passage. During his voyage (1523-24), Verrazzano explored the Atlantic coastline from modern-day South Carolina to New York. A decade later, Francis sponsored two voyages by Jacques Cartier (1491-1557). While Cartier\u00a0failed to find a northern route to Asia, he did\u00a0survey the St. Lawrence River and made valuable contacts with the local\u00a0population. Nevertheless, the discoveries did not inspire Francis to support a permanent settlement in the western Atlantic\u00a0at that time.<\/p>\n Soon the window of opportunity slammed shut. Protestant factions began springing up across France at mid-century, leading to religious riots. The worst of these occurred on St. Bartholomew\u2019s Day, August 24, 1572. Shortly after the marriage of Margaret of Valois to Henry of Navarre, Catholics led by Henry of Guise viciously attacked Protestants in Paris. Sectarian civil war ensued.\u00a0A group of Catholic moderates finally ended the strife when they concluded that domestic tranquility was more important than religious doctrine. Moreover, the last man standing in a three-way conflict over religion and succession was\u00a0the Protestant Henry of Navarre. After he ascended to the throne\u00a0as\u00a0Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), he joined the Roman Catholic Church. Nine years later\u00a0he issued the Edict of Nantes<\/strong> in 1598, which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship and brought stability to the country. Henry IV\u2019s tentative nod to religious toleration put France at last in a position to renew efforts at exploration and transatlantic trade.<\/p>\n Figure\u00a03.6<\/strong>Religion and Politics in the 16th\u00a0Century<\/h2>\n
Key Points<\/h2>\n
\n
Attributions<\/h2>\n
\nTriumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.<\/p>\n
![Triumph of death<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>by\u00a0Quibik<\/a>\u00a0<\/span>is in the\u00a0<\/span>public domain<\/a>.<\/p>\nWilliam Gilbert, \u201cBeothuk-European Contact in the 16th Century: A Re-evaluation of\u00a0the Documentary Evidence,\u201d Acadiensis<\/em>\u00a0 XXXX, no. 1 (Winter\/Spring 2011): 24-44; R.\u00a0A.\u00a0Skelton, \u201cCABOT, JOHN,\u201d in Dictionary of Canadian Biography<\/i>\u00a01 (University of Toronto\/Universit\u00e9 Laval, 2003). Accessed November 30, 2014, http:\/\/www.biographi.ca\/en\/bio\/cabot_john_1E.html. ↵<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":90,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[62],"class_list":["post-6399","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","license-cc-by-sa"],"part":6389,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/90"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":6747,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/revisions\/6747"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/6389"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/6399\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=6399"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=6399"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/preconfederation\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=6399"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}](\"http:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Thetriumphofdeath.jpg\"){kind=link}