At last, you are ready to begin writing the rough draft of your research paper. Putting your thinking and research into words is exciting. It can also be challenging. In this section, you will learn strategies for handling the more challenging aspects of writing a research paper, such as integrating material from your sources, citing information correctly, and avoiding any misuse of your sources.<\/p>\n\n
Research papers generally follow the same basic structure: an introduction that presents the writer\u2019s thesis, a body section that develops the thesis with supporting points and evidence, and a conclusion that revisits the thesis and provides additional insights or suggestions for further research.<\/p>\n
Your writing voice will come across most strongly in your introduction and conclusion, as you work to attract your readers\u2019 interest and establish your thesis. These sections usually do not cite sources at length. They focus on the big picture, not specific details. In contrast, the body of your paper will cite sources extensively. As you present your ideas, you will support your points with details from your research.<\/p>\n\n
There are several approaches to writing an introduction, each of which fulfills the same goals. The introduction should get readers\u2019 attention, provide background information, and present the writer\u2019s thesis. Many writers like to begin with one of the following catchy openers:<\/p>\n\n
The next few sentences place the opening in context by presenting background information. From there, the writer builds toward a thesis, which is traditionally placed at the end of the introduction. Think of your thesis as a signpost that lets readers know in what direction the paper is headed.<\/p>\n
The student we have been following in these Research sections decided to begin his research paper by connecting his topic to readers\u2019 daily experiences. Read the first draft of his introduction. The thesis is underlined. Note how the student progresses from the opening sentences to background information to his thesis.<\/p>\n\n
Exercise 23.1<\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n
In your introduction, you tell readers where they are headed. In your conclusion, you recap where they have been. For this reason, some writers prefer to write their conclusions soon after they have written their introduction. However, this method may not work for all writers. Other writers prefer to write their conclusion at the end of the paper, after writing the body paragraphs. No process is absolutely right or absolutely wrong; find the one that best suits you.<\/p>\n
No matter when you compose the conclusion, it should sum up your main ideas and revisit your thesis. The conclusion should not simply echo the introduction or rely on bland summary statements, such as \"In this paper, I have demonstrated that.\u2026\" In fact, avoid repeating your thesis verbatim from the introduction. Restate it in different words that reflect the new perspective gained through your research. That helps keep your ideas fresh for your readers. An effective writer might conclude a paper by asking a new question the research inspired, revisiting an anecdote presented earlier, or reminding readers of how the topic relates to their lives.<\/p>\n\n
Writing in Process<\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n
One of the challenges of writing a research paper is successfully integrating your ideas with material from your sources. Your paper must explain what you think, or it will read like a disconnected string of facts and quotations. However, you also need to support your ideas with research, or they will seem insubstantial. How do you strike the right balance?<\/p>\n
You have already taken a step in the right direction by writing your introduction. The introduction and conclusion function like the frame around a picture. They define and limit your topic and place your research in context.<\/p>\n
In the body paragraphs of your paper, you will need to integrate ideas carefully at the paragraph level and at the sentence level. You will use topic sentences in your paragraphs to make sure readers understand the significance of any facts, details, or quotations you cite. You will also include sentences that transition between ideas from your research, either within a paragraph or between paragraphs. At the sentence level, you will need to think carefully about how you introduce paraphrased and quoted material.<\/p>\n
Earlier you learned about summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting when taking notes. In the next few sections, you will learn how to use these techniques in the body of your paper to weave in source material to support your ideas. See the previous chapter, \"Introduction Source Evidence<\/a>\" for introductory techniques.<\/p>\n\n When you summarize material from a source, you zero in on the main points and restate them concisely in your own words. This technique is appropriate when only the major ideas are relevant to your paper or when you need to simplify complex information into a few key points for your readers.<\/p>\n Be sure to review the source material as you summarize it. Identify the main idea and restate it as concisely as you can\u2014preferably in one sentence. Depending on your purpose, you may also add another sentence or two condensing any important details or examples. Check your summary to make sure it is accurate and complete.<\/p>\n In his draft, the student above summarized research materials that presented scientists\u2019 findings about low-carbohydrate diets. Read the following passage from a trade magazine article and his summary of the article.<\/p>\n\n Assessing the Efficacy of Low-Carbohydrate Diets<\/p>\nAdrienne Howell, Ph.D.\n\nOver the past few years, a number of clinical studies have explored whether high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are more effective for weight loss than other frequently recommended diet plans, such as diets that drastically curtail fat intake (Pritikin) or that emphasize consuming lean meats, grains, vegetables, and a moderate amount of unsaturated fats (the Mediterranean diet). A 2009 study found that obese teenagers who followed a low-carbohydrate diet lost an average of 15.6 kilograms over a six-month period, whereas teenagers following a low-fat diet or a Mediterranean diet lost an average of 11.1 kilograms and 9.3 kilograms respectively. Two 2010 studies that measured weight loss for obese adults following these same three diet plans found similar results. Over three months, subjects on the low-carbohydrate diet plan lost anywhere from four to six kilograms more than subjects who followed other diet plans.\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\nIn three recent studies, researchers compared outcomes for obese subjects who followed either a low-carbohydrate diet, a low-fat diet, or a Mediterranean diet and found that subjects following a low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight in the same time (Howell, 2010).\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Exercise 23.2<\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n When you paraphrase material from a source, restate the information from an entire sentence or passage in your own words, using your own original sentence structure. A paraphrased source differs from a summarized source in that you focus on restating the ideas, not condensing them.<\/p>\n Again, it is important to check your paraphrase against the source material to make sure it is both accurate and original. Inexperienced writers sometimes use the thesaurus method of paraphrasing\u2014that is, they simply rewrite the source material, replacing most of the words with synonyms. This constitutes a misuse of sources. A true paraphrase restates ideas using the writer\u2019s own language and style.<\/p>\n Read the passage from a website. Then read the student's initial attempt at paraphrasing it, followed by the final version of his paraphrase.<\/p>\n\n Source<\/p>\nDieters nearly always get great results soon after they begin following a low-carbohydrate diet, but these results tend to taper off after the first few months, particularly because many dieters find it difficult to follow a low-carbohydrate diet plan consistently.\n\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\nPeople usually see encouraging outcomes shortly after they go on a low-carbohydrate diet, but their progress slows down after a short while, especially because most discover that it is a challenge to adhere to the diet strictly (Heinz, 2009).\n\n<\/div>\n After reviewing the paraphrased sentence, the student realized he was following the original source too closely. He did not want to quote the full passage verbatim, so he again attempted to restate the idea in his own style.<\/p>\n\n Summary<\/p>\nBecause it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009).\n\n<\/div>\n Exercise 23.3<\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n Most of the time, you will summarize or paraphrase source material instead of quoting directly. Doing so shows that you understand your research well enough to write about it confidently in your own words. However, direct quotes can be powerful when used sparingly and with purpose.<\/p>\n Quoting directly can sometimes help you make a point in a colourful way. If an author\u2019s words are especially vivid, memorable, or well phrased, quoting them may help hold your reader\u2019s interest. Direct quotations from an interviewee or an eyewitness may help you personalize an issue for readers. And when you analyze primary sources, such as a historical speech or a work of literature, quoting extensively is often necessary to illustrate your points. These are valid reasons to use quotations.<\/p>\n Less experienced writers, however, sometimes overuse direct quotations in a research paper because it seems easier than paraphrasing. At best, this reduces the effectiveness of the quotations. At worst, it results in a paper that seems haphazardly pasted together from outside sources. Use quotations sparingly for greater impact.<\/p>\n When you do choose to quote directly from a source, follow these guidelines:<\/p>\n\n The student above interviewed a dietician as part of his research, and he decided to quote her words in his paper. Read an excerpt from the interview and the student's use of it, which follows.<\/p>\n\n Source<\/p>\nPersonally, I don\u2019t really buy into all of the hype about low-carbohydrate miracle diets like Atkins and so on. Sure, for some people, they are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.\n\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\nRegistered dietician Dana Kwon (2010) admits, \"Personally, I don\u2019t really buy into all of the hype.\u2026Sure, for some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.\"\n\n<\/div>\n Notice how the student smoothly integrated the quoted material by starting the sentence with an introductory phrase. His use of ellipses and brackets did not change the source\u2019s meaning.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Throughout the writing process, be scrupulous about documenting information taken from sources. The purpose of doing so is twofold:<\/p>\n\n You will cite sources within the body of your paper and at the end of the paper in your bibliography. For this assignment, you will use the citation format used by the American Psychological Association (also known as APA style). For information on the format used by the Modern Language Association (MLA style), see \"APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.\"<\/p>\n\n In-text citations document your sources within the body of your paper. These include two vital pieces of information: the author\u2019s name and the year the source material was published. When quoting a print source, also include in the citation the page number where the quoted material originally appears. The page number will follow the year in the in-text citation. Page numbers are necessary only when content has been directly quoted, not when it has been summarized or paraphrased.<\/p>\n Within a paragraph, this information may appear as part of your introduction to the material or as a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence. Read the examples that follow. For more information about in-text citations for other source types, see \"APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.\"<\/p>\n\n Summary<\/p>\nLeibowitz (2008) found that low-carbohydrate diets often helped subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels.\n\n<\/div>\n The introduction to the source material includes the author\u2019s name followed by the year of publication in parentheses.<\/p>\n\n Summary<\/p>\nLow-carbohydrate diets often help subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels (Leibowitz, 2008).\n\n<\/div>\n The parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence includes the author\u2019s name, a comma, and the year the source was published. The period at the end of the sentence comes after the parentheses.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n Each of the sources you cite in the body text will appear in a references list at the end of your paper. While in-text citations provide the most basic information about the source, your references section will include additional publication details. In general, you will include the following information:<\/p>\n\n Additional information may be included for different types of sources, such as online sources. For a detailed guide to APA or MLA citations, see \"APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.\" A sample reference list is provided with the final draft of Jorge\u2019s paper later in this chapter.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n As you write your draft, be mindful of how you are using primary and secondary source material to support your points. Recall that primary sources present firsthand information. Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources. They present a writer\u2019s analysis or interpretation of primary source materials. How you balance primary and secondary source material in your paper will depend on the topic and assignment.<\/p>\n\n Some types of research papers must use primary sources extensively to achieve their purpose. Any paper that analyzes a primary text or presents the writer\u2019s own experimental research falls in this category. Here are a few examples:<\/p>\n\n For these types of papers, primary research is the main focus. If you are writing about a work (including nonprint works, such as a movie or a painting), it is crucial to gather information and ideas from the original work, rather than relying solely on others\u2019 interpretations. And, of course, if you take the time to design and conduct your own field research, such as a survey, a series of interviews, or an experiment, you will want to discuss it in detail. For example, the interviews may provide interesting responses that you want to share with your reader.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n For some assignments, it makes sense to rely more on secondary sources than primary sources. If you are not analyzing a text or conducting your own field research, you will need to use secondary sources extensively.<\/p>\n As much as possible, use secondary sources that are closely linked to primary research, such as a journal article presenting the results of the authors\u2019 scientific study or a book that cites interviews and case studies. These sources are more reliable and add more value to your paper than sources that are further removed from primary research. For instance, a popular magazine article on junk-food addiction might be several steps removed from the original scientific study on which it is loosely based. As a result, the article may distort, sensationalize, or misinterpret the scientists\u2019 findings.<\/p>\n Even if your paper is largely based on primary sources, you may use secondary sources to develop your ideas. For instance, an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock\u2019s films would focus on the films themselves as a primary source, but might also cite commentary from critics. A paper that presents an original experiment would include some discussion of similar prior research in the field.<\/p>\n\n Your research paper presents your thinking about a topic, supported and developed by other people\u2019s ideas and information. It is crucial to always distinguish between the two\u2014as you conduct research, as you plan your paper, and as you write. Failure to do so can lead to plagiarism.<\/p>\n\n Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting someone else\u2019s work as your own. Sometimes a writer plagiarizes work on purpose\u2014for instance, by purchasing an essay from a website and submitting it as original course work. In other cases, a writer may commit accidental plagiarism due to carelessness, haste, or misunderstanding. To avoid unintentional plagiarism, follow these guidelines:<\/p>\n\n Any idea or fact taken from an outside source must be cited, in both the body of your paper and the references list. The only exceptions are facts or general statements that are common knowledge. Common-knowledge facts or general statements are commonly supported by and found in multiple sources. For example, a writer would not need to cite the statement that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is well known and well documented. However, if a writer explained in detail the differences among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, a citation would be necessary. When in doubt, cite.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n In recent years, issues related to the fair use of sources have been prevalent in popular culture. Recording artists, for example, may disagree about the extent to which one has the right to sample another\u2019s music. For academic purposes, however, the guidelines for fair use are reasonably straightforward.<\/p>\n Writers may quote from or paraphrase material from previously published works without formally obtaining the copyright holder\u2019s permission. Fair use means that the writer legitimately uses brief excerpts from source material to support and develop his or her own ideas. For instance, a columnist may excerpt a few sentences from a novel when writing a book review. However, quoting or paraphrasing another\u2019s work at excessive length, to the extent that large sections of the writing are unoriginal, is not fair use.<\/p>\n As he worked on his draft, Jorge was careful to cite his sources correctly and not to rely excessively on any one source. Occasionally, however, he caught himself quoting a source at great length. In those instances, he highlighted the paragraph in question so that he could go back to it later and revise. Read the example, along with Jorge\u2019s revision.<\/p>\n\n Summary<\/p>\nHeinz (2009) found that \"subjects in the low-carbohydrate group (30% carbohydrates; 40% protein, 30% fat) had a mean weight loss of 10 kg (22 lbs) over a 4-month period.\" These results were \"noticeably better than results for subjects on a low-fat diet (45% carbohydrates, 35% protein, 20% fat)\" whose average weight loss was only \"7 kg (15.4 lbs) in the same period.\" From this, it can be concluded that \"low-carbohydrate diets obtain more rapid results.\" Other researchers agree that \"at least in the short term, patients following low-carbohydrate diets enjoy greater success\" than those who follow alternative plans (Johnson & Crowe, 2010).\n\n<\/div>\n After reviewing the paragraph, the student above realized that he had drifted into unoriginal writing. Most of the paragraph was taken verbatim from a single article. Although he had enclosed the material in quotation marks, he knew it was not an appropriate way to use the research in his paper.<\/p>\n\n Summary<\/p>\nLow-carbohydrate diets may indeed be superior to other diet plans for short-term weight loss. In a study comparing low-carbohydrate diets and low-fat diets, Heinz (2009) found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate plan (30% of total calories) for 4 months lost, on average, about 3 kilograms more than subjects who followed a low-fat diet for the same time. Heinz concluded that these plans yield quick results, an idea supported by a similar study conducted by Johnson and Crowe (2010). What remains to be seen, however, is whether this initial success can be sustained for longer periods.\n\n<\/div>\n As the student revised the paragraph, he realized he did not need to quote these sources directly. Instead, he paraphrased their most important findings. He also made sure to include a topic sentence stating the main idea of the paragraph and a concluding sentence that transitioned to the next major topic in his essay.<\/p>\n\n<\/div>\n Disorganization and carelessness sometimes lead to plagiarism. For instance, a writer may be unable to provide a complete, accurate citation if he didn\u2019t record bibliographical information. A writer may cut and paste a passage from a website into her paper and later forget where the material came from. A writer who procrastinates may rush through a draft, which easily leads to sloppy paraphrasing and inaccurate quotations. Any of these actions can create the appearance of plagiarism and lead to negative consequences.<\/p>\n Carefully organizing your time and notes is the best guard against these forms of plagiarism. Maintain a detailed working bibliography and thorough notes throughout the research process. Check original sources again to clear up any uncertainties. Allow plenty of time for writing your draft so there is no temptation to cut corners.<\/p>\n\n Writing in Process<\/p>\n\n<\/header>\n The concepts and strategies discussed in this section of\u00a0 \"Writing a Research Paper\" connect to a larger issue\u2014academic integrity. You maintain your integrity as a member of an academic community by representing your work and others\u2019 work honestly and by using other people\u2019s work only in legitimately accepted ways. It is a point of honor taken seriously in every academic discipline and career field.<\/p>\n Academic integrity violations have serious educational and professional consequences. Even when cheating and plagiarism go undetected, they still result in a student\u2019s failure to learn necessary research and writing skills. Students who are found guilty of academic integrity violations face consequences ranging from a failing grade to expulsion from the university. Employees may be fired for plagiarism and do irreparable damage to their professional reputation. In short, it is never worth the risk.<\/p>\n\n At last, you are ready to begin writing the rough draft of your research paper. Putting your thinking and research into words is exciting. It can also be challenging. In this section, you will learn strategies for handling the more challenging aspects of writing a research paper, such as integrating material from your sources, citing information correctly, and avoiding any misuse of your sources.<\/p>\n Research papers generally follow the same basic structure: an introduction that presents the writer\u2019s thesis, a body section that develops the thesis with supporting points and evidence, and a conclusion that revisits the thesis and provides additional insights or suggestions for further research.<\/p>\n Your writing voice will come across most strongly in your introduction and conclusion, as you work to attract your readers\u2019 interest and establish your thesis. These sections usually do not cite sources at length. They focus on the big picture, not specific details. In contrast, the body of your paper will cite sources extensively. As you present your ideas, you will support your points with details from your research.<\/p>\n There are several approaches to writing an introduction, each of which fulfills the same goals. The introduction should get readers\u2019 attention, provide background information, and present the writer\u2019s thesis. Many writers like to begin with one of the following catchy openers:<\/p>\n The next few sentences place the opening in context by presenting background information. From there, the writer builds toward a thesis, which is traditionally placed at the end of the introduction. Think of your thesis as a signpost that lets readers know in what direction the paper is headed.<\/p>\n The student we have been following in these Research sections decided to begin his research paper by connecting his topic to readers\u2019 daily experiences. Read the first draft of his introduction. The thesis is underlined. Note how the student progresses from the opening sentences to background information to his thesis.<\/p>\n Beyond the Hype: Evaluating Low-Carb DietsI.<\/p>\n Introduction<\/p>\n Over the past decade, increasing numbers of Americans have jumped on the low-carb bandwagon. Some studies estimate that approximately 40 million Americans, or about 20 percent of the population, are attempting to restrict their intake of food high in carbohydrates (Sanders and Katz, 2004; Hirsch, 2004). Proponents of low-carb diets say they are not only the most effective way to lose weight, but they also yield health benefits such as lower blood pressure and improved cholesterol levels. Meanwhile, some doctors claim that low-carb diets are overrated and caution that their long-term effects are unknown. Although following a low-carbohydrate diet can benefit some people, these diets are not necessarily the best option for everyone who wants to lose weight or improve their health.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Exercise 23.1<\/p>\n<\/header>\n Write the introductory paragraph of your research paper. Try using one of the techniques listed in this section to write an engaging introduction. Be sure to include background information about the topic that leads to your thesis.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n In your introduction, you tell readers where they are headed. In your conclusion, you recap where they have been. For this reason, some writers prefer to write their conclusions soon after they have written their introduction. However, this method may not work for all writers. Other writers prefer to write their conclusion at the end of the paper, after writing the body paragraphs. No process is absolutely right or absolutely wrong; find the one that best suits you.<\/p>\n No matter when you compose the conclusion, it should sum up your main ideas and revisit your thesis. The conclusion should not simply echo the introduction or rely on bland summary statements, such as “In this paper, I have demonstrated that.\u2026” In fact, avoid repeating your thesis verbatim from the introduction. Restate it in different words that reflect the new perspective gained through your research. That helps keep your ideas fresh for your readers. An effective writer might conclude a paper by asking a new question the research inspired, revisiting an anecdote presented earlier, or reminding readers of how the topic relates to their lives.<\/p>\n Writing in Process<\/p>\n<\/header>\n If your job involves writing or reading scientific papers, it helps to understand how professional researchers use the structure described in this section. A scientific paper begins with an abstract that briefly summarizes the entire paper. The introduction explains the purpose of the research, briefly summarizes previous research, and presents the researchers\u2019 hypothesis. The body provides details about the study, such as who participated in it, what the researchers measured, and what results they recorded. The conclusion presents the researchers\u2019 interpretation of the data, or what they learned.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n One of the challenges of writing a research paper is successfully integrating your ideas with material from your sources. Your paper must explain what you think, or it will read like a disconnected string of facts and quotations. However, you also need to support your ideas with research, or they will seem insubstantial. How do you strike the right balance?<\/p>\n You have already taken a step in the right direction by writing your introduction. The introduction and conclusion function like the frame around a picture. They define and limit your topic and place your research in context.<\/p>\n In the body paragraphs of your paper, you will need to integrate ideas carefully at the paragraph level and at the sentence level. You will use topic sentences in your paragraphs to make sure readers understand the significance of any facts, details, or quotations you cite. You will also include sentences that transition between ideas from your research, either within a paragraph or between paragraphs. At the sentence level, you will need to think carefully about how you introduce paraphrased and quoted material.<\/p>\n Earlier you learned about summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting when taking notes. In the next few sections, you will learn how to use these techniques in the body of your paper to weave in source material to support your ideas. See the previous chapter, “Introduction Source Evidence<\/a>” for introductory techniques.<\/p>\n When you summarize material from a source, you zero in on the main points and restate them concisely in your own words. This technique is appropriate when only the major ideas are relevant to your paper or when you need to simplify complex information into a few key points for your readers.<\/p>\n Be sure to review the source material as you summarize it. Identify the main idea and restate it as concisely as you can\u2014preferably in one sentence. Depending on your purpose, you may also add another sentence or two condensing any important details or examples. Check your summary to make sure it is accurate and complete.<\/p>\n In his draft, the student above summarized research materials that presented scientists\u2019 findings about low-carbohydrate diets. Read the following passage from a trade magazine article and his summary of the article.<\/p>\n Assessing the Efficacy of Low-Carbohydrate Diets<\/p>\n Adrienne Howell, Ph.D.<\/p>\n Over the past few years, a number of clinical studies have explored whether high-protein, low-carbohydrate diets are more effective for weight loss than other frequently recommended diet plans, such as diets that drastically curtail fat intake (Pritikin) or that emphasize consuming lean meats, grains, vegetables, and a moderate amount of unsaturated fats (the Mediterranean diet). A 2009 study found that obese teenagers who followed a low-carbohydrate diet lost an average of 15.6 kilograms over a six-month period, whereas teenagers following a low-fat diet or a Mediterranean diet lost an average of 11.1 kilograms and 9.3 kilograms respectively. Two 2010 studies that measured weight loss for obese adults following these same three diet plans found similar results. Over three months, subjects on the low-carbohydrate diet plan lost anywhere from four to six kilograms more than subjects who followed other diet plans.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\n In three recent studies, researchers compared outcomes for obese subjects who followed either a low-carbohydrate diet, a low-fat diet, or a Mediterranean diet and found that subjects following a low-carbohydrate diet lost more weight in the same time (Howell, 2010).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Exercise 23.2<\/p>\n<\/header>\n On a separate sheet of paper, practice summarizing by writing a one-sentence summary of the same passage that the student already summarized.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n When you paraphrase material from a source, restate the information from an entire sentence or passage in your own words, using your own original sentence structure. A paraphrased source differs from a summarized source in that you focus on restating the ideas, not condensing them.<\/p>\n Again, it is important to check your paraphrase against the source material to make sure it is both accurate and original. Inexperienced writers sometimes use the thesaurus method of paraphrasing\u2014that is, they simply rewrite the source material, replacing most of the words with synonyms. This constitutes a misuse of sources. A true paraphrase restates ideas using the writer\u2019s own language and style.<\/p>\n Read the passage from a website. Then read the student’s initial attempt at paraphrasing it, followed by the final version of his paraphrase.<\/p>\n Source<\/p>\n Dieters nearly always get great results soon after they begin following a low-carbohydrate diet, but these results tend to taper off after the first few months, particularly because many dieters find it difficult to follow a low-carbohydrate diet plan consistently.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\n People usually see encouraging outcomes shortly after they go on a low-carbohydrate diet, but their progress slows down after a short while, especially because most discover that it is a challenge to adhere to the diet strictly (Heinz, 2009).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n After reviewing the paraphrased sentence, the student realized he was following the original source too closely. He did not want to quote the full passage verbatim, so he again attempted to restate the idea in his own style.<\/p>\n Summary<\/p>\n Because it is hard for dieters to stick to a low-carbohydrate eating plan, the initial success of these diets is short-lived (Heinz, 2009).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Exercise 23.3<\/p>\n<\/header>\n On a separate sheet of paper, follow these steps to practice paraphrasing.<\/p>\n Most of the time, you will summarize or paraphrase source material instead of quoting directly. Doing so shows that you understand your research well enough to write about it confidently in your own words. However, direct quotes can be powerful when used sparingly and with purpose.<\/p>\n Quoting directly can sometimes help you make a point in a colourful way. If an author\u2019s words are especially vivid, memorable, or well phrased, quoting them may help hold your reader\u2019s interest. Direct quotations from an interviewee or an eyewitness may help you personalize an issue for readers. And when you analyze primary sources, such as a historical speech or a work of literature, quoting extensively is often necessary to illustrate your points. These are valid reasons to use quotations.<\/p>\n Less experienced writers, however, sometimes overuse direct quotations in a research paper because it seems easier than paraphrasing. At best, this reduces the effectiveness of the quotations. At worst, it results in a paper that seems haphazardly pasted together from outside sources. Use quotations sparingly for greater impact.<\/p>\n When you do choose to quote directly from a source, follow these guidelines:<\/p>\n The student above interviewed a dietician as part of his research, and he decided to quote her words in his paper. Read an excerpt from the interview and the student’s use of it, which follows.<\/p>\n Source<\/p>\n Personally, I don\u2019t really buy into all of the hype about low-carbohydrate miracle diets like Atkins and so on. Sure, for some people, they are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Summary<\/p>\n Registered dietician Dana Kwon (2010) admits, “Personally, I don\u2019t really buy into all of the hype.\u2026Sure, for some people, [low-carbohydrate diets] are great, but for most, any sensible eating and exercise plan would work just as well.”<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Notice how the student smoothly integrated the quoted material by starting the sentence with an introductory phrase. His use of ellipses and brackets did not change the source\u2019s meaning.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n Throughout the writing process, be scrupulous about documenting information taken from sources. The purpose of doing so is twofold:<\/p>\n You will cite sources within the body of your paper and at the end of the paper in your bibliography. For this assignment, you will use the citation format used by the American Psychological Association (also known as APA style). For information on the format used by the Modern Language Association (MLA style), see “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.”<\/p>\n In-text citations document your sources within the body of your paper. These include two vital pieces of information: the author\u2019s name and the year the source material was published. When quoting a print source, also include in the citation the page number where the quoted material originally appears. The page number will follow the year in the in-text citation. Page numbers are necessary only when content has been directly quoted, not when it has been summarized or paraphrased.<\/p>\n Within a paragraph, this information may appear as part of your introduction to the material or as a parenthetical citation at the end of a sentence. Read the examples that follow. For more information about in-text citations for other source types, see “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.”<\/p>\n Summary<\/p>\n Leibowitz (2008) found that low-carbohydrate diets often helped subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n The introduction to the source material includes the author\u2019s name followed by the year of publication in parentheses.<\/p>\n Summary<\/p>\n Low-carbohydrate diets often help subjects with Type II diabetes maintain a healthy weight and control blood-sugar levels (Leibowitz, 2008).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n The parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence includes the author\u2019s name, a comma, and the year the source was published. The period at the end of the sentence comes after the parentheses.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Each of the sources you cite in the body text will appear in a references list at the end of your paper. While in-text citations provide the most basic information about the source, your references section will include additional publication details. In general, you will include the following information:<\/p>\n Additional information may be included for different types of sources, such as online sources. For a detailed guide to APA or MLA citations, see “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting.” A sample reference list is provided with the final draft of Jorge\u2019s paper later in this chapter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n As you write your draft, be mindful of how you are using primary and secondary source material to support your points. Recall that primary sources present firsthand information. Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources. They present a writer\u2019s analysis or interpretation of primary source materials. How you balance primary and secondary source material in your paper will depend on the topic and assignment.<\/p>\n Some types of research papers must use primary sources extensively to achieve their purpose. Any paper that analyzes a primary text or presents the writer\u2019s own experimental research falls in this category. Here are a few examples:<\/p>\n For these types of papers, primary research is the main focus. If you are writing about a work (including nonprint works, such as a movie or a painting), it is crucial to gather information and ideas from the original work, rather than relying solely on others\u2019 interpretations. And, of course, if you take the time to design and conduct your own field research, such as a survey, a series of interviews, or an experiment, you will want to discuss it in detail. For example, the interviews may provide interesting responses that you want to share with your reader.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n For some assignments, it makes sense to rely more on secondary sources than primary sources. If you are not analyzing a text or conducting your own field research, you will need to use secondary sources extensively.<\/p>\n As much as possible, use secondary sources that are closely linked to primary research, such as a journal article presenting the results of the authors\u2019 scientific study or a book that cites interviews and case studies. These sources are more reliable and add more value to your paper than sources that are further removed from primary research. For instance, a popular magazine article on junk-food addiction might be several steps removed from the original scientific study on which it is loosely based. As a result, the article may distort, sensationalize, or misinterpret the scientists\u2019 findings.<\/p>\n Even if your paper is largely based on primary sources, you may use secondary sources to develop your ideas. For instance, an analysis of Alfred Hitchcock\u2019s films would focus on the films themselves as a primary source, but might also cite commentary from critics. A paper that presents an original experiment would include some discussion of similar prior research in the field.<\/p>\n Your research paper presents your thinking about a topic, supported and developed by other people\u2019s ideas and information. It is crucial to always distinguish between the two\u2014as you conduct research, as you plan your paper, and as you write. Failure to do so can lead to plagiarism.<\/p>\n Plagiarism is the act of misrepresenting someone else\u2019s work as your own. Sometimes a writer plagiarizes work on purpose\u2014for instance, by purchasing an essay from a website and submitting it as original course work. In other cases, a writer may commit accidental plagiarism due to carelessness, haste, or misunderstanding. To avoid unintentional plagiarism, follow these guidelines:<\/p>\n Any idea or fact taken from an outside source must be cited, in both the body of your paper and the references list. The only exceptions are facts or general statements that are common knowledge. Common-knowledge facts or general statements are commonly supported by and found in multiple sources. For example, a writer would not need to cite the statement that most breads, pastas, and cereals are high in carbohydrates; this is well known and well documented. However, if a writer explained in detail the differences among the chemical structures of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, a citation would be necessary. When in doubt, cite.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n In recent years, issues related to the fair use of sources have been prevalent in popular culture. Recording artists, for example, may disagree about the extent to which one has the right to sample another\u2019s music. For academic purposes, however, the guidelines for fair use are reasonably straightforward.<\/p>\n Writers may quote from or paraphrase material from previously published works without formally obtaining the copyright holder\u2019s permission. Fair use means that the writer legitimately uses brief excerpts from source material to support and develop his or her own ideas. For instance, a columnist may excerpt a few sentences from a novel when writing a book review. However, quoting or paraphrasing another\u2019s work at excessive length, to the extent that large sections of the writing are unoriginal, is not fair use.<\/p>\n As he worked on his draft, Jorge was careful to cite his sources correctly and not to rely excessively on any one source. Occasionally, however, he caught himself quoting a source at great length. In those instances, he highlighted the paragraph in question so that he could go back to it later and revise. Read the example, along with Jorge\u2019s revision.<\/p>\n Summary<\/p>\n Heinz (2009) found that “subjects in the low-carbohydrate group (30% carbohydrates; 40% protein, 30% fat) had a mean weight loss of 10 kg (22 lbs) over a 4-month period.” These results were “noticeably better than results for subjects on a low-fat diet (45% carbohydrates, 35% protein, 20% fat)” whose average weight loss was only “7 kg (15.4 lbs) in the same period.” From this, it can be concluded that “low-carbohydrate diets obtain more rapid results.” Other researchers agree that “at least in the short term, patients following low-carbohydrate diets enjoy greater success” than those who follow alternative plans (Johnson & Crowe, 2010).<\/p>\n<\/div>\n After reviewing the paragraph, the student above realized that he had drifted into unoriginal writing. Most of the paragraph was taken verbatim from a single article. Although he had enclosed the material in quotation marks, he knew it was not an appropriate way to use the research in his paper.<\/p>\n Summary<\/p>\n Low-carbohydrate diets may indeed be superior to other diet plans for short-term weight loss. In a study comparing low-carbohydrate diets and low-fat diets, Heinz (2009) found that subjects who followed a low-carbohydrate plan (30% of total calories) for 4 months lost, on average, about 3 kilograms more than subjects who followed a low-fat diet for the same time. Heinz concluded that these plans yield quick results, an idea supported by a similar study conducted by Johnson and Crowe (2010). What remains to be seen, however, is whether this initial success can be sustained for longer periods.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n As the student revised the paragraph, he realized he did not need to quote these sources directly. Instead, he paraphrased their most important findings. He also made sure to include a topic sentence stating the main idea of the paragraph and a concluding sentence that transitioned to the next major topic in his essay.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n Disorganization and carelessness sometimes lead to plagiarism. For instance, a writer may be unable to provide a complete, accurate citation if he didn\u2019t record bibliographical information. A writer may cut and paste a passage from a website into her paper and later forget where the material came from. A writer who procrastinates may rush through a draft, which easily leads to sloppy paraphrasing and inaccurate quotations. Any of these actions can create the appearance of plagiarism and lead to negative consequences.<\/p>\n Carefully organizing your time and notes is the best guard against these forms of plagiarism. Maintain a detailed working bibliography and thorough notes throughout the research process. Check original sources again to clear up any uncertainties. Allow plenty of time for writing your draft so there is no temptation to cut corners.<\/p>\n Writing in Process<\/p>\n<\/header>\n Citing other people\u2019s work appropriately is just as important in the workplace as it is in school. If you need to consult outside sources to research a document you are creating, follow the general guidelines already discussed, as well as any industry-specific citation guidelines. For more extensive use of others\u2019 work\u2014for instance, requesting permission to link to another company\u2019s website on your own corporate website\u2014always follow your employer\u2019s established procedures.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n The concepts and strategies discussed in this section of\u00a0 “Writing a Research Paper” connect to a larger issue\u2014academic integrity. You maintain your integrity as a member of an academic community by representing your work and others\u2019 work honestly and by using other people\u2019s work only in legitimately accepted ways. It is a point of honor taken seriously in every academic discipline and career field.<\/p>\n Academic integrity violations have serious educational and professional consequences. Even when cheating and plagiarism go undetected, they still result in a student\u2019s failure to learn necessary research and writing skills. Students who are found guilty of academic integrity violations face consequences ranging from a failing grade to expulsion from the university. Employees may be fired for plagiarism and do irreparable damage to their professional reputation. In short, it is never worth the risk.<\/p>\nSummarizing Sources<\/h2>\n
Paraphrasing Sources<\/h2>\n
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Quoting Sources Directly<\/h2>\n
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Documenting Source Material<\/h1>\n
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Citing Sources in the Body of Your Paper<\/h2>\n
Creating a List of References<\/h2>\n
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Using Primary and Secondary Research<\/h1>\n
Using Primary Sources Effectively<\/h2>\n
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Using Secondary Sources Effectively<\/h2>\n
Avoiding Plagiarism<\/h1>\n
Intentional and Accidental Plagiarism<\/h2>\n
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When to Cite<\/h2>\n
Fair Use<\/h2>\n
Working with Sources Carefully<\/h2>\n
Academic Integrity<\/h1>\n
Text Attributions<\/h3>\n
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The Structure of a Research Paper<\/h1>\n
Writing Your Introduction<\/h2>\n
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Writing Your Conclusion<\/h2>\n
Using Source Material in Your Paper<\/h1>\n
Summarizing Sources<\/h2>\n
Paraphrasing Sources<\/h2>\n
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Quoting Sources Directly<\/h2>\n
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Documenting Source Material<\/h1>\n
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Citing Sources in the Body of Your Paper<\/h2>\n
Creating a List of References<\/h2>\n
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Using Primary and Secondary Research<\/h1>\n
Using Primary Sources Effectively<\/h2>\n
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Using Secondary Sources Effectively<\/h2>\n
Avoiding Plagiarism<\/h1>\n
Intentional and Accidental Plagiarism<\/h2>\n
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When to Cite<\/h2>\n
Fair Use<\/h2>\n
Working with Sources Carefully<\/h2>\n
Academic Integrity<\/h1>\n
Text Attributions<\/h3>\n
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