{"id":119,"date":"2024-02-12T11:40:09","date_gmt":"2024-02-12T16:40:09","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/biological-behaviour-chapter-resources\/"},"modified":"2024-10-24T11:41:23","modified_gmt":"2024-10-24T15:41:23","slug":"biological-behaviour-chapter-resources","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/biological-behaviour-chapter-resources\/","title":{"raw":"Chapter Resources","rendered":"Chapter Resources"},"content":{"raw":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><strong>action potential:<\/strong> electrical signal that moves down the neuron\u2019s axon<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>agonist:<\/strong> drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>all-or-none:<\/strong> phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>amygdala:<\/strong> structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>antagonist:<\/strong> drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>association cortex:<\/strong> areas of the cortex that are not primary sensory areas, responsible for more complex processing and combining information from multiple senses<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>auditory cortex:<\/strong> strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>autonomic nervous system:<\/strong> controls our internal organs and glands<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>axon:<\/strong> major extension of the soma<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>biological perspective:<\/strong> view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Broca\u2019s area:<\/strong> region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>central nervous system (CNS):<\/strong> brain and spinal cord<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>central sulcus:<\/strong> a deep groove separating the temporal lobe and the frontal and parietal lobes<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>cerebellum:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>cerebral cortex:<\/strong> surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>computerised tomography (CT) scan:<\/strong> imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>contralateral:<\/strong> a term that refers to something on the opposite side of the body from a particular structure or phenomenon, e.g., the left hemisphere is contralateral to the right hand.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>corpus callosum:<\/strong> thick band of neural fibres connecting the brain\u2019s two hemispheres<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>degradation:<\/strong> the process by which an enzyme breaks down neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft into their components so that they can no longer interact with the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>dendrite:<\/strong> branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>electroencephalography (EEG):<\/strong> recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>fight or flight response:<\/strong> activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>forebrain:<\/strong> largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>frontal lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>\u00a0Frontal Lobe Syndrome:<\/strong> a set of common symptoms that can occur after damage to the frontal lobe, affecting motivation, planning, social behaviour, and language\/speech production<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):<\/strong> MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>glia:<\/strong> nervous system cells that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>gyrus:<\/strong> (plural: gyri) bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>hemisphere:<\/strong> left or right half of the brain<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>hindbrain:<\/strong> division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>hippocampus:<\/strong> structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>homeostasis:<\/strong> state of equilibrium \u2014 biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>homunculus:<\/strong> a human figure in which the size of different parts represents the relative amount of cortical space that corresponds to each body part<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>hypothalamus:<\/strong> forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behaviour and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>lateralization:<\/strong> concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialised functions<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>limbic system:<\/strong> collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>longitudinal fissure:<\/strong> deep groove in the brain\u2019s cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):<\/strong> magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>medulla:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>membrane potential:<\/strong> difference in charge across the neuronal membrane<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>midbrain:<\/strong> division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>motor cortex:<\/strong> strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>myelin sheath:<\/strong> fatty substance that insulates axons<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Neuro-decolonisation:<\/strong> An Indigenous perspective for the conduct of neuroscience research that emphasises the plasticity associated with moving beyond colonial trauma<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>neuron:<\/strong> cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>neuroplasticity:<\/strong> nervous system\u2019s ability to change<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>neurotransmitter:<\/strong> chemical messenger of the nervous system<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Nodes of Ranvier:<\/strong> open spaces that are found in the myelin sheath that encases the axon<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>occipital lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>parasympathetic nervous system:<\/strong> associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>parietal lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>peripheral nervous system (PNS):<\/strong> connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>pituitary gland:<\/strong> secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>pons:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>positron emission tomography (PET) scan:<\/strong> involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>prefrontal cortex:<\/strong> area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>primary gustatory cortex:<\/strong> an area that includes a portion of the frontal lobe as well as the insula, buried inside the lateral fissure and responsible for processing information about flavour<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>primary olfactory area:<\/strong> an area on the ventral surface of the frontal lobe that is responsible for processing information about smells<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>primary visual cortex:<\/strong> an area at the back of the occipital lobe that is responsible for processing visual information<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>psychotropic medication:<\/strong> drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>receptor:<\/strong> protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>resting potential:<\/strong> the state of readiness of a neuron membrane\u2019s potential between signals<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>reuptake:<\/strong> neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>semipermeable membrane:<\/strong> cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>soma:<\/strong> cell body<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>somatic nervous system:<\/strong>relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>somatosensory cortex:<\/strong> essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>somatotopy:<\/strong> the matching arrangement of body parts and their representation in the cerebral cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>substantia nigra:<\/strong> midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>sulcus:<\/strong> (plural: sulci) depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>sympathetic nervous system:<\/strong> involved in stress-related activities and functions<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>synaptic cleft:<\/strong> small gap between two neurons where communication occurs<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>synaptic vesicle:<\/strong> storage site for neurotransmitters<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>temporal lobe:<\/strong> part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>terminal button:<\/strong> axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>thalamus:<\/strong> sensory relay for the brain<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>threshold of excitation:<\/strong> level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>ventral tegmental area (VTA):<\/strong> midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Wernicke\u2019s area:<\/strong> important for speech comprehension<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>Review Questions<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Multiple Choice Questions<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>The ______ receive(s) incoming signals from other neurons.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>soma<\/li>\r\n \t<li>terminal buttons<\/li>\r\n \t<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\r\n \t<li>dendrites<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A(n) ______ facilitates or mimics the activity of a given neurotransmitter system.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>axon<\/li>\r\n \t<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\r\n \t<li>agonist<\/li>\r\n \t<li>antagonist<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Multiple sclerosis involves a breakdown of the _____.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>soma<\/li>\r\n \t<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\r\n \t<li>synaptic vesicles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>dendrites<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>An action potential involves Na+ moving _____ the cell and K+ moving _____ the cell.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>inside; outside<\/li>\r\n \t<li>outside; inside<\/li>\r\n \t<li>inside; inside<\/li>\r\n \t<li>outside; outside<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the _____ nervous system.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>autonomic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>somatic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sympathetic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>parasympathetic<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>If your ____ is activated, you will feel relatively at ease.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>somatic nervous system<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sympathetic nervous system<\/li>\r\n \t<li>parasympathetic nervous system<\/li>\r\n \t<li>spinal cord<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The central nervous system comprises ____.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems<\/li>\r\n \t<li>organs and glands<\/li>\r\n \t<li>somatic and autonomic nervous systems<\/li>\r\n \t<li>brain and spinal cord<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sympathetic activation is associated with ______.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>pupil dilation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>storage of glucose in the liver<\/li>\r\n \t<li>decreased heart rate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>constricted bladder<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The ______ is a sensory relay station where all sensory information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other areas of the brain for further processing.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>amygdala<\/li>\r\n \t<li>hippocampus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>hypothalamus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>thalamus<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Damage to the ______ disrupts one\u2019s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one\u2019s ability to produce words intact.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>amygdala<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Broca\u2019s Area<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Wernicke\u2019s Area<\/li>\r\n \t<li>occipital lobe<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A(n) ______ uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given tissue.\r\n<ol type=\"a\">\r\n \t<li>EEG<\/li>\r\n \t<li>MRI<\/li>\r\n \t<li>PET scan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>CT scan<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Which of the following is not a structure of the forebrain?\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>thalamus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>hippocampus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>amygdala<\/li>\r\n \t<li>substantia nigra<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Critical Thinking Questions<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div>\r\n<ol start=\"13\">\r\n \t<li>Cocaine has two effects on synaptic transmission: it impairs reuptake of dopamine and it causes more dopamine to be released into the synaptic cleft. Would cocaine be classified as an agonist or antagonist? Why?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Drugs such as lidocaine and novocaine act as Na+ channel blockers. In other words, they prevent sodium from moving across the neuronal membrane. Why would this particular effect make these drugs such effective local anaesthetics (drugs that reduce pain in the immediate area they are administered)?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Examine BB.8, illustrating the effects of sympathetic nervous system activation. How would all of these things play into the fight or flight response?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Before the advent of modern imaging techniques, scientists and clinicians relied on autopsies of people who suffered brain injury with resultant change in behaviour to determine how different areas of the brain were affected. What are some of the limitations associated with this kind of approach?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In what ways could two-eyed seeing be incorporated into modern studies of the brain?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Compare and contrast our modern understanding of the visual pathway and al-Haytham\u2019s depiction.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Personal Application Questions<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div>\r\n<ol start=\"19\">\r\n \t<li>Think about someone who has been prescribed psychotropic medication. What side effects were associated with the treatment?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>You read about H. M.\u2019s memory deficits following the bilateral removal of his hippocampus and amygdala. Have you encountered a character in a book, television program, or movie that suffered memory deficits? How was that character similar to and different from H. M.?<\/li>\r\n \t<li>How much does our knowledge of psychology and neuroscience rely on other people?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>References<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"pdf\">The reference list for this chapter has been excluded from this file to reduce page count. The full reference list can be viewed online at opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/biological-behaviour-chapter-resources.<\/div>\r\n<div class=\"references\">\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Anderson, P. J., &amp; Leuzzi, V. (2010). White matter pathology in phenylketonuria. <em>Molecular Genetics and Metabolism<\/em>, <em>99<\/em>, S3\u2013S9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ymgme.2009.10.005<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Azevedo, F. A., Carvalho, L. R., Grinberg, L. T., Farfel, J. M., Ferretti, R. E., Leite, R. E., \u2026 &amp; Herculano\u2010Houzel, S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled\u2010up primate brain. <em>Journal of Comparative Neurology<\/em>, <em>513<\/em>(5), 532\u2013541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cne.21974<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Banich, M. T., &amp; Heller, W. (1998). Evolving perspectives on lateralization of function. <em>Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7<\/em>(1), 1\u20132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-8721.ep11521802<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bartlett, C, Marshall, M, Marshall, A. (2012). Two-Eyed Seeing and other lessons learned within a co-learning journey of bringing together Indigenous and mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing.<em> Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 2,<\/em> 331\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13412-012-0086-8<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bauer, G. R., Hammond, R., Travers, R., Kaay, M., Hohenadel, K. M., &amp; Boyce, M. (2009). \u201cI don\u2019t think this is theoretical; this is our lives\u201d: How erasure impacts health care for transgender people. <em>Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care<\/em>, <em>20<\/em>(5), 348\u2013361. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jana.2009.07.004<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Berlin, H. A. (2004). Impulsivity, time perception, emotion and reinforcement sensitivity in patients with orbitofrontal cortex lesions. <em>Brain, 127<\/em>(5), 1108\u20131126. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/awh135<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Berridge, K. C., &amp; Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? <em>Brain Research Reviews, 28<\/em>, 309\u2013369. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0165-0173(98)00019-8<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Chandola, T., Brunner, E., &amp; Marmot, M. (2006). Chronic stress at work and the metabolic syndrome: A prospective study. <em>BMJ, 332<\/em>, 521\u2013524. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1136\/bmj.38693.435301.80<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Connors, B. W., &amp; Long, M. A. (2004). Electrical synapses in the mammalian brain. <em>Annual Review of Neuroscience<\/em>, <em>27<\/em>, 393\u2013418. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131128<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Devinsky, O., &amp; Samuels, M. A. (2016). The brain that changed neurology: Broca\u2019s 1861 case of aphasia. <em>Annals of Neurology<\/em>, <em>80<\/em>(3), 321\u2013325. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ana.24723<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ehret, G. (2006). Hemisphere dominance of brain function\u2014which functions are lateralized and why?. In J Leo van Hemmen &amp; T. J. Sejnowski (Eds.), 2<em>3 Problems in Systems Neuroscience<\/em> (pp. 44\u201361). Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Fernandez, A. (2008, October 16). ABC reporter Bob Woodruff\u2019s incredible recovery from traumatic brain injury. <em>The Huffington Post<\/em>. https:\/\/www.huffpost.com\/entry\/abc-reporter-bob-woodruff_b_125863<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Gardner, E. L. (2011). Addiction and brain reward and antireward pathways. <em>Advances in Psychosomatic Medicine, 30<\/em>, 22\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1159\/000324065<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Gazzaniga, M. S. (2005). Forty-five years of split-brain research and still going strong. <em>Nature Reviews Neuroscience<\/em>, <em>6<\/em>(8), 653\u2013659. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nrn1723<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">George, O., Le Moal, M., &amp; Koob, G. F. (2012). Allostasis and addiction: Role of the dopamine and corticotropin-releasing factor systems. <em>Physiology &amp; Behavior, 106<\/em>, 58\u201364. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.physbeh.2011.11.004<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Glaser, R., &amp; Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K. (2005). Stress-induced immune dysfunction: Implications for health. <em>Nature Reviews Immunology, 5<\/em>, 243\u2013251. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1038\/nri1571<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Gordon, P. (2004). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia. <em>Science, 306<\/em>(5695), 496-499. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1094492<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Harding, L., Marra, C. J., Manohara, V., &amp; Illes, J. (2022). Ways of knowing of the brain and mind: a scoping review of the literature about global Indigenous perspectives. <em>Journal of Neurology Research, 12<\/em>(2), 43-53. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.14740\/jnr708<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Hardt, O., Einarsson, E. \u00d6., &amp; Nader, K. (2010). A bridge over troubled water: Reconsolidation as a link between cognitive and neuroscientific memory research traditions. <em>Annual Review of Psychology, 61<\/em>, 141\u2013167. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1146\/annurev.psych.093008.100455<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Harlow, J. M. &amp; Massachusetts Medical Society. (1869). Recovery from the passage of an iron bar through the head. <em>OnView. <\/em>https:\/\/collections.countway.harvard.edu\/onview\/index.php\/items\/show\/25407<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Harlow, J. M. (1848). Passage of an iron rod through the head. <em>The Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 39<\/em>(20), 389\u2013393. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1056\/nejm184812130392001<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Herculano-Houzel, S. (2009). The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain. <em>Frontiers in Human Neuroscience<\/em>, <em>3<\/em>, 31. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/neuro.09.031.2009<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Herculano-Houzel, S. (2012). The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain as a scaled-up primate brain and its associated cost. <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences<\/em>, <em>109<\/em>(Supplement 1), 10661\u201310668. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1073\/pnas.120189510<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Huttenlocher, P. R. (2000). The neuropathology of phenylketonuria: human and animal studies. <em>European Journal of Pediatrics<\/em>, <em>159<\/em>(2), S102\u2013S106. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/PL00014371<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Lindberg, D. C. (1967). Alhazen's theory of vision and its reception in the West. <em>Isis, 58<\/em>(3), 321-341.<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Macmillan, M. (1999). <em>The Phineas Gage information page. <\/em>The University of Akron. http:\/\/www.uakron.edu\/gage<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Macmillan, M., &amp; Lena, M. L. (2010). Rehabilitating Phineas Gage. <em>Neuropsychological Rehabilitation, 20<\/em>(5), 641\u2013658. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/09602011003760527<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">March, J. S., Silva, S., Petrycki, S., Curry, J., Wells, K., Fairbank, J., \u2026 Severe, J. (2007). The treatment for adolescents with depression study (TADS): Long-term effectiveness and safety outcomes. <em>Arch Gen Psychiatry, 64<\/em>, 1132\u20131143. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archpsyc.64.10.1132<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Parent, M., &amp; Parent, A. (2010). Substantia Nigra and Parkinson\u2019s Disease: A brief history of their long and intimate relationship. <em>Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences \/ Journal Canadien Des Sciences Neurologiques,<\/em> <em>37<\/em>(3), 313-319. doi:10.1017\/S0317167100010209<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Penfield, W., &amp; Boldrey, E. (1937). Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. <em>Brain<\/em>, <em>60<\/em>(4), 389\u2013443. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/brain\/60.4.389<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Penfield, W., &amp; Rasmussen, T. (1950). The cerebral cortex of man: A clinical study of localization of function. <em>Journal of the American Medical Association<\/em>, <em>144<\/em>(16). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/jama.1950.02920160086033<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Perreault, M. L., King, M., Gabel, C., Mushquash, C. J., De Koninck, Y., Lawson, A., ... &amp; Illes, J. (2023). An Indigenous lens on priorities for the Canadian Brain Research Strategy. <em>Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences, 50<\/em>(1), 96-98. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1017\/cjn.2021.501<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Pirau, L., &amp; Lui, F. (2021, September 25). <em>NCBI \u2013 Frontal Lobe Syndrome. <\/em>National Library of Medicine. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK532981\/<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Plevkova, J., Brozmanova, M., Harsanyiova, J., Sterusky, M., Honetschlager, J., &amp; Buday, T. (2021). Various aspects of sex and gender bias in biomedical research. <em>Physiological Research, 69,<\/em> S367\u2013S378. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.33549\/physiolres.934593<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Ramachandran, V. S., &amp; Rogers-Ramachandran, D. (2000). Phantom limbs and neural plasticity. <em>Archives of Neurology<\/em>, <em>57<\/em>(3), 317. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1001\/archneur.57.3.317-320<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Squire, L. R. (2009). The legacy of patient H. M. for neuroscience. <em>Neuron, 61<\/em>, 6\u20139. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.neuron.2008.12.023<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Taylor, K. I., &amp; Regard, M. (2003). Language in the Right Cerebral Hemisphere: Contributions from Reading Studies. <em>Physiology<\/em>, <em>18<\/em>(6), 257\u2013261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1152\/nips.01454.2003<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">van Horn, J. D., Irimia, A., Torgerson, C. M., Chambers, M. C., Kikinis, R., &amp; Toga, A. W. (2012). Mapping connectivity damage in the case of Phineas Gage. <em>PLoS ONE, 7<\/em>(5). https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0037454<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Wright, H., &amp; Foerder, P. (2021). The missing female homunculus. <em>Leonardo<\/em>, <em>54<\/em>(6), 653\u2013656. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/leon_a_02012<\/p>\r\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Yellow Bird, M. (n.d.). <em>About<\/em>. Neurodecolonization and Indigenous Mindfulness. https:\/\/www.indigenousmindfulness.com\/about<\/p>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h1>Chapter Attribution<\/h1>\r\n\"Biological Basis of Behaviour\" was written and adapted by Tareq Yousef and is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>. It was adapted from \"III. Biological Basis of Behaviour\" in <a href=\"https:\/\/caul-cbua.pressbooks.pub\/intropsychneuro\/\"><em>Introduction to Psychology and Neuroscience<\/em><\/a> (2nd Edition) edited by Leanne Stevens, Jennifer Stamp, &amp; Kevin LeBlanc, which is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY 4.0 licence<\/a>. That text was adapted from <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/details\/books\/psychology-2e\">Psychology 2e<\/a> from OpenStax. Max Dysart and Dr. Jennifer Stamp reworked and rewrote large portions of this section of the Biological Basis of Behaviour chapter. \u2018Does the Classic Homunculus Represent Us All?\u2019, was based on the Introduction and Discussion sections of Saisha Rankaduwa\u2018s Honours Thesis (BScH Neuroscience, Dalhousie University).\r\n<h1 class=\"about-authors\">About the Author: Tareq Yousef<\/h1>\r\n<p style=\"font-size: 1.2em;\">University of British Columbia Okanagan<\/p>\r\nI am an uninvited immigrant settler privileged to live on the unceded land of the Syilx Okanagan Nation, where I work as a lecturer at UBC Okanagan. I grew up on the east coast of Turtle Island on the unceded land of the Mi\u2019kmaq peoples, in K\u2019jipuktuk (Halifax) where I received my Ph.D. in Anatomy and Neurobiology from Dalhousie University for work on retinal neuromodulation and physiology. My positionality encompasses some intersectionality including my identity as a queer person of colour. This informs how I seek to use whatever privilege I have as an instructor to benefit others on and off my campus. My aim is to deliver strengths-based educational experiences that centre on anti-oppression and scientific inquiry, in a way that is accessible (including financially), meaningful, and joyful for all.\r\n\r\nA note on equity, diversity, and inclusion: Black people, Indigenous people, people of colour and various marginalised communities continue to face obstacles in the scientific world in the form of denial of access to equitable opportunities. Psychology and neuroscience are no exception; they also have a history of misogyny, ableism, and anti-LGBTQIA2S+ discrimination. My academic approach takes these systemic barriers into consideration. I will strive to provide safe and welcoming opportunities to learn about the science behind these issues and discuss equitable ways forward. Let us make the world a better place to live!","rendered":"<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Key Terms<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ul>\n<li><strong>action potential:<\/strong> electrical signal that moves down the neuron\u2019s axon<\/li>\n<li><strong>agonist:<\/strong> drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter<\/li>\n<li><strong>all-or-none:<\/strong> phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation<\/li>\n<li><strong>amygdala:<\/strong> structure in the limbic system involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories<\/li>\n<li><strong>antagonist:<\/strong> drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter<\/li>\n<li><strong>association cortex:<\/strong> areas of the cortex that are not primary sensory areas, responsible for more complex processing and combining information from multiple senses<\/li>\n<li><strong>auditory cortex:<\/strong> strip of cortex in the temporal lobe that is responsible for processing auditory information<\/li>\n<li><strong>autonomic nervous system:<\/strong> controls our internal organs and glands<\/li>\n<li><strong>axon:<\/strong> major extension of the soma<\/li>\n<li><strong>biological perspective:<\/strong> view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems<\/li>\n<li><strong>Broca\u2019s area:<\/strong> region in the left hemisphere that is essential for language production<\/li>\n<li><strong>central nervous system (CNS):<\/strong> brain and spinal cord<\/li>\n<li><strong>central sulcus:<\/strong> a deep groove separating the temporal lobe and the frontal and parietal lobes<\/li>\n<li><strong>cerebellum:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in processing some types of memory<\/li>\n<li><strong>cerebral cortex:<\/strong> surface of the brain that is associated with our highest mental capabilities<\/li>\n<li><strong>computerised tomography (CT) scan:<\/strong> imaging technique in which a computer coordinates and integrates multiple x-rays of a given area<\/li>\n<li><strong>contralateral:<\/strong> a term that refers to something on the opposite side of the body from a particular structure or phenomenon, e.g., the left hemisphere is contralateral to the right hand.<\/li>\n<li><strong>corpus callosum:<\/strong> thick band of neural fibres connecting the brain\u2019s two hemispheres<\/li>\n<li><strong>degradation:<\/strong> the process by which an enzyme breaks down neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft into their components so that they can no longer interact with the receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.<\/li>\n<li><strong>dendrite:<\/strong> branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons<\/li>\n<li><strong>electroencephalography (EEG):<\/strong> recording the electrical activity of the brain via electrodes on the scalp<\/li>\n<li><strong>fight or flight response:<\/strong> activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to safety<\/li>\n<li><strong>forebrain:<\/strong> largest part of the brain, containing the cerebral cortex, the thalamus, and the limbic system, among other structures<\/li>\n<li><strong>frontal lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language; contains motor cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>\u00a0Frontal Lobe Syndrome:<\/strong> a set of common symptoms that can occur after damage to the frontal lobe, affecting motivation, planning, social behaviour, and language\/speech production<\/li>\n<li><strong>functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):<\/strong> MRI that shows changes in metabolic activity over time<\/li>\n<li><strong>glia:<\/strong> nervous system cells that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport<\/li>\n<li><strong>gyrus:<\/strong> (plural: gyri) bump or ridge on the cerebral cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>hemisphere:<\/strong> left or right half of the brain<\/li>\n<li><strong>hindbrain:<\/strong> division of the brain containing the medulla, pons, and cerebellum<\/li>\n<li><strong>hippocampus:<\/strong> structure in the temporal lobe associated with learning and memory<\/li>\n<li><strong>homeostasis:<\/strong> state of equilibrium \u2014 biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels<\/li>\n<li><strong>homunculus:<\/strong> a human figure in which the size of different parts represents the relative amount of cortical space that corresponds to each body part<\/li>\n<li><strong>hypothalamus:<\/strong> forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behaviour and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system<\/li>\n<li><strong>lateralization:<\/strong> concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialised functions<\/li>\n<li><strong>limbic system:<\/strong> collection of structures involved in processing emotion and memory<\/li>\n<li><strong>longitudinal fissure:<\/strong> deep groove in the brain\u2019s cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>magnetic resonance imaging (MRI):<\/strong> magnetic fields used to produce a picture of the tissue being imaged<\/li>\n<li><strong>medulla:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that controls automated processes like breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate<\/li>\n<li><strong>membrane potential:<\/strong> difference in charge across the neuronal membrane<\/li>\n<li><strong>midbrain:<\/strong> division of the brain located between the forebrain and the hindbrain<\/li>\n<li><strong>motor cortex:<\/strong> strip of cortex involved in planning and coordinating movement<\/li>\n<li><strong>myelin sheath:<\/strong> fatty substance that insulates axons<\/li>\n<li><strong>Neuro-decolonisation:<\/strong> An Indigenous perspective for the conduct of neuroscience research that emphasises the plasticity associated with moving beyond colonial trauma<\/li>\n<li><strong>neuron:<\/strong> cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system<\/li>\n<li><strong>neuroplasticity:<\/strong> nervous system\u2019s ability to change<\/li>\n<li><strong>neurotransmitter:<\/strong> chemical messenger of the nervous system<\/li>\n<li><strong>Nodes of Ranvier:<\/strong> open spaces that are found in the myelin sheath that encases the axon<\/li>\n<li><strong>occipital lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing; contains the primary visual cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>parasympathetic nervous system:<\/strong> associated with routine, day-to-day operations of the body<\/li>\n<li><strong>parietal lobe:<\/strong> part of the cerebral cortex involved in processing various sensory and perceptual information; contains the primary somatosensory cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>peripheral nervous system (PNS):<\/strong> connects the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, organs and senses in the periphery of the body<\/li>\n<li><strong>pituitary gland:<\/strong> secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the activity of other glands in the endocrine system<\/li>\n<li><strong>pons:<\/strong> hindbrain structure that connects the brain and spinal cord; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep<\/li>\n<li><strong>positron emission tomography (PET) scan:<\/strong> involves injecting individuals with a mildly radioactive substance and monitoring changes in blood flow to different regions of the brain<\/li>\n<li><strong>prefrontal cortex:<\/strong> area in the frontal lobe responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning<\/li>\n<li><strong>primary gustatory cortex:<\/strong> an area that includes a portion of the frontal lobe as well as the insula, buried inside the lateral fissure and responsible for processing information about flavour<\/li>\n<li><strong>primary olfactory area:<\/strong> an area on the ventral surface of the frontal lobe that is responsible for processing information about smells<\/li>\n<li><strong>primary visual cortex:<\/strong> an area at the back of the occipital lobe that is responsible for processing visual information<\/li>\n<li><strong>psychotropic medication:<\/strong> drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance<\/li>\n<li><strong>receptor:<\/strong> protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach<\/li>\n<li><strong>resting potential:<\/strong> the state of readiness of a neuron membrane\u2019s potential between signals<\/li>\n<li><strong>reuptake:<\/strong> neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it<\/li>\n<li><strong>semipermeable membrane:<\/strong> cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules<\/li>\n<li><strong>soma:<\/strong> cell body<\/li>\n<li><strong>somatic nervous system:<\/strong>relays sensory and motor information to and from the CNS<\/li>\n<li><strong>somatosensory cortex:<\/strong> essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain<\/li>\n<li><strong>somatotopy:<\/strong> the matching arrangement of body parts and their representation in the cerebral cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>substantia nigra:<\/strong> midbrain structure where dopamine is produced; involved in control of movement<\/li>\n<li><strong>sulcus:<\/strong> (plural: sulci) depressions or grooves in the cerebral cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>sympathetic nervous system:<\/strong> involved in stress-related activities and functions<\/li>\n<li><strong>synaptic cleft:<\/strong> small gap between two neurons where communication occurs<\/li>\n<li><strong>synaptic vesicle:<\/strong> storage site for neurotransmitters<\/li>\n<li><strong>temporal lobe:<\/strong> part of cerebral cortex associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; contains primary auditory cortex<\/li>\n<li><strong>terminal button:<\/strong> axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles<\/li>\n<li><strong>thalamus:<\/strong> sensory relay for the brain<\/li>\n<li><strong>threshold of excitation:<\/strong> level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active<\/li>\n<li><strong>ventral tegmental area (VTA):<\/strong> midbrain structure where dopamine is produced: associated with mood, reward, and addiction<\/li>\n<li><strong>Wernicke\u2019s area:<\/strong> important for speech comprehension<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Review Questions<\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Multiple Choice Questions<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<ol>\n<li>The ______ receive(s) incoming signals from other neurons.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>soma<\/li>\n<li>terminal buttons<\/li>\n<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\n<li>dendrites<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>A(n) ______ facilitates or mimics the activity of a given neurotransmitter system.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>axon<\/li>\n<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\n<li>agonist<\/li>\n<li>antagonist<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Multiple sclerosis involves a breakdown of the _____.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>soma<\/li>\n<li>myelin sheath<\/li>\n<li>synaptic vesicles<\/li>\n<li>dendrites<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>An action potential involves Na+ moving _____ the cell and K+ moving _____ the cell.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>inside; outside<\/li>\n<li>outside; inside<\/li>\n<li>inside; inside<\/li>\n<li>outside; outside<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the _____ nervous system.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>autonomic<\/li>\n<li>somatic<\/li>\n<li>sympathetic<\/li>\n<li>parasympathetic<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>If your ____ is activated, you will feel relatively at ease.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>somatic nervous system<\/li>\n<li>sympathetic nervous system<\/li>\n<li>parasympathetic nervous system<\/li>\n<li>spinal cord<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>The central nervous system comprises ____.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems<\/li>\n<li>organs and glands<\/li>\n<li>somatic and autonomic nervous systems<\/li>\n<li>brain and spinal cord<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Sympathetic activation is associated with ______.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>pupil dilation<\/li>\n<li>storage of glucose in the liver<\/li>\n<li>decreased heart rate<\/li>\n<li>constricted bladder<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>The ______ is a sensory relay station where all sensory information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other areas of the brain for further processing.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>amygdala<\/li>\n<li>hippocampus<\/li>\n<li>hypothalamus<\/li>\n<li>thalamus<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Damage to the ______ disrupts one\u2019s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one\u2019s ability to produce words intact.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>amygdala<\/li>\n<li>Broca\u2019s Area<\/li>\n<li>Wernicke\u2019s Area<\/li>\n<li>occipital lobe<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>A(n) ______ uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given tissue.\n<ol type=\"a\">\n<li>EEG<\/li>\n<li>MRI<\/li>\n<li>PET scan<\/li>\n<li>CT scan<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<li>Which of the following is not a structure of the forebrain?\n<ol>\n<li>thalamus<\/li>\n<li>hippocampus<\/li>\n<li>amygdala<\/li>\n<li>substantia nigra<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Critical Thinking Questions<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div>\n<ol start=\"13\">\n<li>Cocaine has two effects on synaptic transmission: it impairs reuptake of dopamine and it causes more dopamine to be released into the synaptic cleft. Would cocaine be classified as an agonist or antagonist? Why?<\/li>\n<li>Drugs such as lidocaine and novocaine act as Na+ channel blockers. In other words, they prevent sodium from moving across the neuronal membrane. Why would this particular effect make these drugs such effective local anaesthetics (drugs that reduce pain in the immediate area they are administered)?<\/li>\n<li>Examine BB.8, illustrating the effects of sympathetic nervous system activation. How would all of these things play into the fight or flight response?<\/li>\n<li>Before the advent of modern imaging techniques, scientists and clinicians relied on autopsies of people who suffered brain injury with resultant change in behaviour to determine how different areas of the brain were affected. What are some of the limitations associated with this kind of approach?<\/li>\n<li>In what ways could two-eyed seeing be incorporated into modern studies of the brain?<\/li>\n<li>Compare and contrast our modern understanding of the visual pathway and al-Haytham\u2019s depiction.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--exercises\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Personal Application Questions<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div>\n<ol start=\"19\">\n<li>Think about someone who has been prescribed psychotropic medication. What side effects were associated with the treatment?<\/li>\n<li>You read about H. M.\u2019s memory deficits following the bilateral removal of his hippocampus and amygdala. Have you encountered a character in a book, television program, or movie that suffered memory deficits? How was that character similar to and different from H. M.?<\/li>\n<li>How much does our knowledge of psychology and neuroscience rely on other people?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h1>References<\/h1>\n<div class=\"pdf\">The reference list for this chapter has been excluded from this file to reduce page count. The full reference list can be viewed online at opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/biological-behaviour-chapter-resources.<\/div>\n<div class=\"references\">\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Anderson, P. J., &amp; Leuzzi, V. (2010). White matter pathology in phenylketonuria. <em>Molecular Genetics and Metabolism<\/em>, <em>99<\/em>, S3\u2013S9. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ymgme.2009.10.005<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Azevedo, F. A., Carvalho, L. R., Grinberg, L. T., Farfel, J. M., Ferretti, R. E., Leite, R. E., \u2026 &amp; Herculano\u2010Houzel, S. (2009). Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled\u2010up primate brain. <em>Journal of Comparative Neurology<\/em>, <em>513<\/em>(5), 532\u2013541. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/cne.21974<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Banich, M. T., &amp; Heller, W. (1998). Evolving perspectives on lateralization of function. <em>Current Directions in Psychological Science, 7<\/em>(1), 1\u20132. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1467-8721.ep11521802<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bartlett, C, Marshall, M, Marshall, A. (2012). Two-Eyed Seeing and other lessons learned within a co-learning journey of bringing together Indigenous and mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing.<em> Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 2,<\/em> 331\u201340. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s13412-012-0086-8<\/p>\n<p class=\"hanging-indent\">Bauer, G. R., Hammond, R., Travers, R., Kaay, M., Hohenadel, K. M., &amp; Boyce, M. 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Neurodecolonization and Indigenous Mindfulness. https:\/\/www.indigenousmindfulness.com\/about<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<h1>Chapter Attribution<\/h1>\n<p>&#8220;Biological Basis of Behaviour&#8221; was written and adapted by Tareq Yousef and is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>. It was adapted from &#8220;III. Biological Basis of Behaviour&#8221; in <a href=\"https:\/\/caul-cbua.pressbooks.pub\/intropsychneuro\/\"><em>Introduction to Psychology and Neuroscience<\/em><\/a> (2nd Edition) edited by Leanne Stevens, Jennifer Stamp, &amp; Kevin LeBlanc, which is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY 4.0 licence<\/a>. That text was adapted from <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/details\/books\/psychology-2e\">Psychology 2e<\/a> from OpenStax. Max Dysart and Dr. Jennifer Stamp reworked and rewrote large portions of this section of the Biological Basis of Behaviour chapter. \u2018Does the Classic Homunculus Represent Us All?\u2019, was based on the Introduction and Discussion sections of Saisha Rankaduwa\u2018s Honours Thesis (BScH Neuroscience, Dalhousie University).<\/p>\n<h1 class=\"about-authors\">About the Author: Tareq Yousef<\/h1>\n<p style=\"font-size: 1.2em;\">University of British Columbia Okanagan<\/p>\n<p>I am an uninvited immigrant settler privileged to live on the unceded land of the Syilx Okanagan Nation, where I work as a lecturer at UBC Okanagan. I grew up on the east coast of Turtle Island on the unceded land of the Mi\u2019kmaq peoples, in K\u2019jipuktuk (Halifax) where I received my Ph.D. in Anatomy and Neurobiology from Dalhousie University for work on retinal neuromodulation and physiology. My positionality encompasses some intersectionality including my identity as a queer person of colour. This informs how I seek to use whatever privilege I have as an instructor to benefit others on and off my campus. My aim is to deliver strengths-based educational experiences that centre on anti-oppression and scientific inquiry, in a way that is accessible (including financially), meaningful, and joyful for all.<\/p>\n<p>A note on equity, diversity, and inclusion: Black people, Indigenous people, people of colour and various marginalised communities continue to face obstacles in the scientific world in the form of denial of access to equitable opportunities. Psychology and neuroscience are no exception; they also have a history of misogyny, ableism, and anti-LGBTQIA2S+ discrimination. My academic approach takes these systemic barriers into consideration. I will strive to provide safe and welcoming opportunities to learn about the science behind these issues and discuss equitable ways forward. 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