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Key Takeaways<\/h1>\r\n
\r\n

Key Takeaways<\/p>\r\n\r\n<\/header>\r\n

\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Categories are sets of equivalent objects, but they are not always well-defined.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. The mental representations of categories are called concepts. Concepts allow us to behave intelligently in new situations. They involve prototypes and exemplars.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Some category members are seen as prototypical.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Many categories fall into hierarchies. Basic categories are more likely to be used.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. We build on existing knowledge when learning new concepts.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Schemas are organised knowledge structures.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. We use a variety of shortcuts in our information processing, such as the representativeness, availability, and anchoring and adjustment heuristics. These help us to make fast judgments but may lead to errors.<\/li>\r\n \t
  8. Algorithms are problem-solving strategies that are based on rules rather than guesses. Algorithms, if applied correctly, are far less likely to result in errors or incorrect solutions than heuristics.<\/li>\r\n \t
  9. Algorithms are based on logic.<\/li>\r\n \t
  10. A variety of cognitive biases influence the accuracy of our judgments.<\/li>\r\n \t
  11. Overcoming cognitive bias may take awareness of their existence and active work.<\/li>\r\n \t
  12. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is an inconsistency between two cognitions or between cognition and behaviour. People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

    Exercises and Critical Thinking<\/h1>\r\n
      \r\n \t
    1. Pick a couple of familiar categories, and try to come up with definitions for them. When you evaluate each proposal, consider whether it is, in fact, accurate as a definition and if it is a definition that people might actually use in identifying category members.<\/li>\r\n \t
    2. For the same categories, can you identify members that seem to be \u201cbetter\u201d and \u201cworse\u201d members? What about these items makes them typical and atypical?<\/li>\r\n \t
    3. Look around the room. Point to some common objects, including things people are wearing or brought with them, and identify what the basic-level category is for that item. What are superordinate and subordinate categories for the same items?<\/li>\r\n \t
    4. Draw an image that represents your schema for doing laundry. Then, do the same thing for studying for a final exam. What have you included in your studying schema?<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n

      References<\/h1>\r\n
      The reference list for this chapter has been excluded from this file to reduce page count. The full reference list can be viewed online at opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/cognition-chapter-resources\/.<\/div>\r\n
      \r\n

      Allen, S. W., & Brooks, L. R. (1991). Specializing the operation of an explicit rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120<\/em>, 3\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-3445.120.1.3<\/p>\r\n

      Anglin, J. M. (1977). Word, object, and conceptual developmen<\/em>t. Norton.<\/p>\r\n

      Antoine, A., Mason, R., Mason, R., Palahicky, S. & de France, C. R. (2018). Pulling together: A guide for curriculum developers.<\/em> BC Campus. https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/indigenizationcurriculumdevelopers\/<\/p>\r\n

      Bennett, M. W. (2014). Confronting cognitive \u2018anchoring effect\u2019 and \u2018blind spot\u2019 biases in federal sentencing: A modest solution for reforming and fundamental flaw. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology<\/em>, 104<\/em>(3), 489-534.<\/p>\r\n

      Berlin, B. (1992). Ethnobiological classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies<\/em>. Princeton University Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Blackstock, Cindy. (2007). The breath of life versus the embodiment of life: Indigenous knowledge and western research. https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=62c3a8948620060677d50b30d7b29b34bc10ee99<\/p>\r\n

      Brown, R. (1958). How shall a thing be called? Psychological Review, 65<\/em>, 14\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0041727<\/p>\r\n

      Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44<\/em>, 20\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.44.1.20<\/p>\r\n

      Duncker, K. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58<\/em>(5), i\u2013113.<\/p>\r\n

      Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance<\/em>. Row, Peterson.<\/p>\r\n

      Frimer, J. A., Skitka, L. J., & Motyl, M. (2017) Liberals and conservatives are similarly motivated to avoid exposure to one another\u2019s opinions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72<\/em>, 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jesp.2017.04.003<\/p>\r\n

      Garrod, S., & Sanford, A. (1977). Interpreting anaphoric relations: The integration of semantic information while reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16<\/em>(1), 77\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-5371(77)80009-1<\/p>\r\n

      Hampton, J. A. (1979). Polymorphous concepts in semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18<\/em>, 441\u2013461. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-5371(79)90246-9<\/p>\r\n

      Horton, M. S., & Markman, E. M. (1980). Developmental differences in the acquisition of basic and superordinate categories. Child Development<\/em>, 51, 708\u2013719. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1129456<\/p>\r\n

      Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. <\/em>Farrar, Straus and Giroux.<\/p>\r\n

      Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93<\/em>, 136\u2013153. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.93.2.136<\/p>\r\n

      Kepin (2015). Nohtawinan<\/em>. Kepin\u2019s Cree Language Blog https:\/\/creelanguage.wordpress.com\/2015\/05\/25\/nohtawinan\/<\/p>\r\n

      LaMarre, H. L., Landreville, K. D., & Beam, M. A. (2009). The irony of satire: Political ideology and the motivation to see what you want to see in the Colbert Report. The International Journal of Press\/Politics<\/em>, 14(2), 212-231. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/194016120833090<\/p>\r\n

      Liu, Y. & Almor, T. (2014). How culture influences the way entrepreneurs deal with uncertainty in inter-organizational relationships: The case of returnee versus local entrepreneurs in China. International Business Review, 25<\/em>(1), 4-14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ibusrev.2014.11.002<\/p>\r\n

      Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984). Considering the opposite: A corrective strategy for social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74<\/em>(6), 1231\u20131243. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.47.6.1231<\/p>\r\n

      MacLeod, C., & Campbell, L. (1992). Memory accessibility and probability judgments: An experimental evaluation of the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63<\/em>(6), 890\u2013902. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.63.6.890<\/p>\r\n

      Maddox, W. T., & Ashby, F. G. (2004). Dissociating explicit and procedural-based systems of perceptual category learning. Behavioural Processes, 66<\/em>, 309\u2013332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beproc.2004.03.011<\/p>\r\n

      Maddux, W.M. & Yuki, M. (2006). The ripple effect: Cultural differences in perceptions of the consequences of events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32<\/em>(5), 669-683.<\/p>\r\n

      Mandler, J. M. (2004). The foundations of mind: Origins of conceptual thought<\/em>. Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Mareschal, D., Quinn, P. C., & Lea, S. E. G. (Eds.). (2010). The making of human concepts<\/em>. Oxford University Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Masuda, T. & Nisbett, R.E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81<\/em>(5), 922\u2013934. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.81.5.922<\/p>\r\n

      McCloskey, M. E., & Glucksberg, S. (1978). Natural categories: Well defined or fuzzy sets? Memory & Cognition, 6<\/em>, 462\u2013472. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03197480<\/p>\r\n

      Medin, D. L., & Schaffer, M. M. (1978). Context theory of classification learning. Psychological Review<\/em>, 85, 207\u2013238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.85.3.207<\/p>\r\n

      Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more: Counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology<\/em>, 69(4), 603\u2013610. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.69.4.603<\/p>\r\n

      Mervis, C. B. (1987). Child-basic object categories and early lexical development. In U. Neisser (Ed.), Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization<\/em> (pp. 201\u2013233). Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Mervis, C. B., & Pani, J. R. (1980). Acquisition of basic object categories. Cognitive Psychology, 12<\/em>(4), 496\u2013522. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(80)90018-3<\/p>\r\n

      Miller, D. T., Turnbull, W., & McFarland, C. (1988). Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 55, 908\u2013917. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.55.6.908<\/p>\r\n

      Murphy, G. L. (2020). Categories and concepts. In R. Biswas-Diener & E. Diener (Eds), Noba textbook series: Psychology.<\/em> Noba. http:\/\/noba.to\/6vu4cpkt<\/p>\r\n

      Murphy, G. L., & Allopenna, P. D. (1994). The locus of knowledge effects in concept learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20<\/em>, 904\u2013919. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.20.4.904<\/p>\r\n

      Murphy, G. L., & Brownell, H. H. (1985). Category differentiation in object recognition: Typicality constraints on the basic category advantage. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11<\/em>, 70\u201384. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.11.1.70<\/p>\r\n

      Norenzayan, A., Smith, E. E., Kim, B. J., & Nisbett, R. E. (2002). Cultural preferences for formal versus intuitive reasoning. Cognitive Science, 26<\/em>, 653\u2013684. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s15516709cog2605_4<\/p>\r\n

      Onishi, K., Murphy, G., & Bock, K. (2008). Prototypicality in sentence production. Cognitive psychology, 56<\/em>(2), 103-141. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2007.04.001<\/p>\r\n

      Poses, R. M., & Anthony, M. (1991). Availability, wishful thinking, and physicians\u2019 diagnostic judgments for patients with suspected bacteremia. Medical Decision Making, 11<\/em>, 159-68. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0272989X91011003<\/p>\r\n

      Reser, D., Simmons, M., Johns, E., Ghaly, A., Quayle, M., Dordevic, A.L., Tare, M., McArdle, A., Willems, J., Yunkaporta, T. (2021). Australian Aboriginal techniques for memorization: Translation into a medical and allied health education setting. PLoS One<\/em>, 16(5): e0251710. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0251710<\/p>\r\n

      Rips, L. J., Shoben, E. J., & Smith E. E. (1973). Semantic distance and the verification of semantic distance. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 12<\/em>(1), 1\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-5371(73)80056-8<\/p>\r\n

      Roese, N. (2005). If only: How to turn regret into opportunity<\/em>. Broadway Books.<\/p>\r\n

      Rosch, E. (1973). On the internal structure of perceptual and semantic categories. In T. E. Moore (Ed.), Cognitive development and the acquisition of language <\/em>(pp. 111\u2013144). Academic Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Rosch, E., & Mervis, C. B. (1975). Family resemblance: Studies in the internal structure of categories. Cognitive Psychology<\/em>, 7, 573\u2013605.<\/p>\r\n

      Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W., Johnson, D., & Boyes-Braem, P. (1976). Basic objects in natural categories. Cognitive Psychology, 8<\/em>, 382\u2013439. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(76)90013-X<\/p>\r\n

      Rosch, E., Simpson, C., & Miller, R. S. (1976). Structural bases of typicality effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 2<\/em>, 491\u2013502. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-1523.2.4.491<\/p>\r\n

      Rutledge, R. W. (1993). The effects of group decisions and group-shifts on use of the anchoring and adjustment heuristic. Social Behavior and Personality, 21<\/em>(3), 215-226. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2224\/sbp.1993.21.3.215<\/p>\r\n

      Smith, E. E., & Medin, D. L. (1981). Categories and concepts<\/em>. Harvard University Press.<\/p>\r\n

      Smith, J. D., & Minda, J. P. (1998). Prototypes in the mist: The early epochs of category learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24<\/em>, 1411\u20131436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0278-7393.24.6.1411<\/p>\r\n

      Statistics Canada. (2018). Homicide in Canada, 2017<\/em>. Retrieved from https:\/\/www150.statcan.gc.ca\/n1\/pub\/85-002-x\/2018001\/article\/54980-eng.htm<\/p>\r\n

      Talhelm, T., Zhang, X., Oishi, S., Shimin, C., Duan, D., Lan, X., Kitayama, S. (2014). Large-scale psychological differences within China explained by rice versus wheat agriculture. Science<\/em>, 344<\/em>(6184), 603-608. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.1246850<\/p>\r\n

      Tanaka, J. W., & Taylor, M. E. (1991). Object categories and expertise: Is the basic level in the eye of the beholder? Cognitive Psychology, 15<\/em>, 121\u2013149. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(91)90016-H<\/p>\r\n

      Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availability: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5<\/em>, 207\u2013232. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(73)90033-9<\/p>\r\n

      Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice. Science, 211<\/em>(4481), 453\u2013458. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1126\/science.7455683<\/p>\r\n

      Wisniewski, E. J., & Murphy, G. L. (1989). Superordinate and basic category names in discourse: A textual analysis. Discourse Processes, 12<\/em>, 245\u2013261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/01638538909544728<\/p>\r\n<\/div>\r\n

      Chapter Attribution<\/h1>\r\n\"Cognition\" by Dinesh Ramoo is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>. It was adapted from the \"Chapter 8. Cognition\" chapter in Psychology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition<\/em><\/a> by Sally Walters, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>.\r\n

      About the Author: Dinesh Ramoo<\/h1>\r\n

      College of New Caledonia<\/p>\r\nI am a heterosexual, cisgendered male who is a first generation immigrant in Canada. I was born in Sri Lanka into a South Indian immigrant family and lived in the UK where I completed my higher education. My research has focused on communities that have traditionally been overlooked within the field of cognitive psychology. I have worked with Hindi stroke patients with aphasia in India as well as with minority communities in Canada, UK, Sri Lanka and Turkey. I have explored Indigenous knowledge for treating neurological disorders and have worked with Indigenous communities to increase awareness about dementia. This work has involved travelling to Indigenous communities in Northern BC and talking with Elders and community leaders. I was born into a Hindu family and am now an atheist.","rendered":"

      Key Takeaways<\/h1>\n
      \n
      \n

      Key Takeaways<\/p>\n<\/header>\n

      \n
        \n
      1. Categories are sets of equivalent objects, but they are not always well-defined.<\/li>\n
      2. The mental representations of categories are called concepts. Concepts allow us to behave intelligently in new situations. They involve prototypes and exemplars.<\/li>\n
      3. Some category members are seen as prototypical.<\/li>\n
      4. Many categories fall into hierarchies. Basic categories are more likely to be used.<\/li>\n
      5. We build on existing knowledge when learning new concepts.<\/li>\n
      6. Schemas are organised knowledge structures.<\/li>\n
      7. We use a variety of shortcuts in our information processing, such as the representativeness, availability, and anchoring and adjustment heuristics. These help us to make fast judgments but may lead to errors.<\/li>\n
      8. Algorithms are problem-solving strategies that are based on rules rather than guesses. Algorithms, if applied correctly, are far less likely to result in errors or incorrect solutions than heuristics.<\/li>\n
      9. Algorithms are based on logic.<\/li>\n
      10. A variety of cognitive biases influence the accuracy of our judgments.<\/li>\n
      11. Overcoming cognitive bias may take awareness of their existence and active work.<\/li>\n
      12. Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is an inconsistency between two cognitions or between cognition and behaviour. People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n

        Exercises and Critical Thinking<\/h1>\n
          \n
        1. Pick a couple of familiar categories, and try to come up with definitions for them. When you evaluate each proposal, consider whether it is, in fact, accurate as a definition and if it is a definition that people might actually use in identifying category members.<\/li>\n
        2. For the same categories, can you identify members that seem to be \u201cbetter\u201d and \u201cworse\u201d members? What about these items makes them typical and atypical?<\/li>\n
        3. Look around the room. Point to some common objects, including things people are wearing or brought with them, and identify what the basic-level category is for that item. What are superordinate and subordinate categories for the same items?<\/li>\n
        4. Draw an image that represents your schema for doing laundry. Then, do the same thing for studying for a final exam. What have you included in your studying schema?<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          References<\/h1>\n
          The reference list for this chapter has been excluded from this file to reduce page count. The full reference list can be viewed online at opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/cognition-chapter-resources\/.<\/div>\n
          \n

          Allen, S. W., & Brooks, L. R. (1991). Specializing the operation of an explicit rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120<\/em>, 3\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0096-3445.120.1.3<\/p>\n

          Anglin, J. M. (1977). Word, object, and conceptual developmen<\/em>t. Norton.<\/p>\n

          Antoine, A., Mason, R., Mason, R., Palahicky, S. & de France, C. R. (2018). Pulling together: A guide for curriculum developers.<\/em> BC Campus. https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/indigenizationcurriculumdevelopers\/<\/p>\n

          Bennett, M. W. (2014). Confronting cognitive \u2018anchoring effect\u2019 and \u2018blind spot\u2019 biases in federal sentencing: A modest solution for reforming and fundamental flaw. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology<\/em>, 104<\/em>(3), 489-534.<\/p>\n

          Berlin, B. (1992). Ethnobiological classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies<\/em>. Princeton University Press.<\/p>\n

          Blackstock, Cindy. (2007). The breath of life versus the embodiment of life: Indigenous knowledge and western research. https:\/\/citeseerx.ist.psu.edu\/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=62c3a8948620060677d50b30d7b29b34bc10ee99<\/p>\n

          Brown, R. (1958). How shall a thing be called? Psychological Review, 65<\/em>, 14\u201321. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0041727<\/p>\n

          Darley, J. M., & Gross, P. H. (1983). A hypothesis-confirming bias in labeling effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44<\/em>, 20\u201333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.44.1.20<\/p>\n

          Duncker, K. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological Monographs, 58<\/em>(5), i\u2013113.<\/p>\n

          Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance<\/em>. Row, Peterson.<\/p>\n

          Frimer, J. A., Skitka, L. J., & Motyl, M. (2017) Liberals and conservatives are similarly motivated to avoid exposure to one another\u2019s opinions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72<\/em>, 1\u201312. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.jesp.2017.04.003<\/p>\n

          Garrod, S., & Sanford, A. (1977). Interpreting anaphoric relations: The integration of semantic information while reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16<\/em>(1), 77\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-5371(77)80009-1<\/p>\n

          Hampton, J. A. (1979). Polymorphous concepts in semantic memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18<\/em>, 441\u2013461. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0022-5371(79)90246-9<\/p>\n

          Horton, M. S., & Markman, E. M. (1980). Developmental differences in the acquisition of basic and superordinate categories. Child Development<\/em>, 51, 708\u2013719. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1129456<\/p>\n

          Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. <\/em>Farrar, Straus and Giroux.<\/p>\n

          Kahneman, D., & Miller, D. T. (1986). Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review, 93<\/em>, 136\u2013153. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.93.2.136<\/p>\n

          Kepin (2015). Nohtawinan<\/em>. Kepin\u2019s Cree Language Blog https:\/\/creelanguage.wordpress.com\/2015\/05\/25\/nohtawinan\/<\/p>\n

          LaMarre, H. L., Landreville, K. D., & Beam, M. A. (2009). The irony of satire: Political ideology and the motivation to see what you want to see in the Colbert Report. The International Journal of Press\/Politics<\/em>, 14(2), 212-231. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/194016120833090<\/p>\n

          Liu, Y. & Almor, T. (2014). How culture influences the way entrepreneurs deal with uncertainty in inter-organizational relationships: The case of returnee versus local entrepreneurs in China. International Business Review, 25<\/em>(1), 4-14. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ibusrev.2014.11.002<\/p>\n

          Lord, C. G., Lepper, M. R., & Preston, E. (1984). Considering the opposite: A corrective strategy for social judgment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74<\/em>(6), 1231\u20131243. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.47.6.1231<\/p>\n

          MacLeod, C., & Campbell, L. (1992). Memory accessibility and probability judgments: An experimental evaluation of the availability heuristic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63<\/em>(6), 890\u2013902. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.63.6.890<\/p>\n

          Maddox, W. T., & Ashby, F. G. (2004). Dissociating explicit and procedural-based systems of perceptual category learning. Behavioural Processes, 66<\/em>, 309\u2013332. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.beproc.2004.03.011<\/p>\n

          Maddux, W.M. & Yuki, M. (2006). The ripple effect: Cultural differences in perceptions of the consequences of events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32<\/em>(5), 669-683.<\/p>\n

          Mandler, J. M. (2004). The foundations of mind: Origins of conceptual thought<\/em>. Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n

          Mareschal, D., Quinn, P. C., & Lea, S. E. G. (Eds.). (2010). The making of human concepts<\/em>. Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n

          Masuda, T. & Nisbett, R.E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81<\/em>(5), 922\u2013934. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.81.5.922<\/p>\n

          McCloskey, M. E., & Glucksberg, S. (1978). Natural categories: Well defined or fuzzy sets? Memory & Cognition, 6<\/em>, 462\u2013472. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3758\/BF03197480<\/p>\n

          Medin, D. L., & Schaffer, M. M. (1978). Context theory of classification learning. Psychological Review<\/em>, 85, 207\u2013238. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.85.3.207<\/p>\n

          Medvec, V. H., Madey, S. F., & Gilovich, T. (1995). When less is more: Counterfactual thinking and satisfaction among Olympic medalists. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology<\/em>, 69(4), 603\u2013610. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.69.4.603<\/p>\n

          Mervis, C. B. (1987). Child-basic object categories and early lexical development. In U. Neisser (Ed.), Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization<\/em> (pp. 201\u2013233). Cambridge University Press.<\/p>\n

          Mervis, C. B., & Pani, J. R. (1980). Acquisition of basic object categories. Cognitive Psychology, 12<\/em>(4), 496\u2013522. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/0010-0285(80)90018-3<\/p>\n

          Miller, D. T., Turnbull, W., & McFarland, C. (1988). Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology<\/em>, 55, 908\u2013917. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.55.6.908<\/p>\n

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          Chapter Attribution<\/h1>\n

          “Cognition” by Dinesh Ramoo is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>. It was adapted from the “Chapter 8. Cognition” chapter in Psychology \u2013 1st Canadian Edition<\/em><\/a> by Sally Walters, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence<\/a>.<\/p>\n

          About the Author: Dinesh Ramoo<\/h1>\n

          College of New Caledonia<\/p>\n

          I am a heterosexual, cisgendered male who is a first generation immigrant in Canada. I was born in Sri Lanka into a South Indian immigrant family and lived in the UK where I completed my higher education. My research has focused on communities that have traditionally been overlooked within the field of cognitive psychology. I have worked with Hindi stroke patients with aphasia in India as well as with minority communities in Canada, UK, Sri Lanka and Turkey. I have explored Indigenous knowledge for treating neurological disorders and have worked with Indigenous communities to increase awareness about dementia. This work has involved travelling to Indigenous communities in Northern BC and talking with Elders and community leaders. I was born into a Hindu family and am now an atheist.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":127,"menu_order":5,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["dinesh-ramoo"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[63],"license":[57],"class_list":["post-269","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-dinesh-ramoo","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":254,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/269","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/127"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/269\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1204,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/269\/revisions\/1204"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/254"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/269\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=269"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=269"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=269"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=269"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}