{"id":333,"date":"2024-02-26T22:29:29","date_gmt":"2024-02-27T03:29:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/ages-stages-and-milestones-of-development\/"},"modified":"2024-09-03T14:10:28","modified_gmt":"2024-09-03T18:10:28","slug":"ages-stages-and-milestones-of-development","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/chapter\/ages-stages-and-milestones-of-development\/","title":{"raw":"Ages, Stages, and Milestones of Development","rendered":"Ages, Stages, and Milestones of Development"},"content":{"raw":"<p style=\"text-align: right\">[pb_glossary id=\"595\"]Approximate reading time[\/pb_glossary]: 51 minutes<\/p>\r\nDevelopment\u202ffrom conception into a fully grown human involves \u202fmajor\u202falterations\u202fto anatomy, physiology,\u202fcognition, and\u202f behaviour, and many of these\u202fchanges follow a\u202fpredictable,\u202fage-based\u202fprogression.\u202fThis\u202fsection will\u202fdiscuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development\u202facross three domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"731\"]<img class=\"wp-image-324 size-full\" title=\"The growth of a fetus is shown using nine pictures in different stages of development. For each stage, there is a picture of a fetus which gets progressively larger and more mature. The first stage is labeled \u201c9 weeks; fetal stage begins.\u201d The second stage is labeled \u201c12 weeks; sex organs differentiate.\u201d The third stage is labeled \u201c16 weeks; fingers and toes develop.\u201d The fourth stage is labeled \u201c20 weeks; hearing begins.\u201d The fifth stage is labeled \u201c24 weeks; lungs begin to develop.\u201d The sixth stage is labeled \u201c28 weeks; brain grows rapidly.\u201d The seventh stage is labeled \u201c32 weeks; bones fully develop.\u201d The eighth stage is labeled \u201c36 weeks; muscles fully develop.\u201d The ninth stage is labeled \u201c40 weeks; full-term development.\u201d\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5.jpeg\" alt=\"The growth of a fetus is shown using nine pictures in different stages of development. For each stage, there is a picture of a fetus which gets progressively larger and more mature. The first stage is labeled \u201c9 weeks; fetal stage begins.\u201d The second stage is labeled \u201c12 weeks; sex organs differentiate.\u201d The third stage is labeled \u201c16 weeks; fingers and toes develop.\u201d The fourth stage is labeled \u201c20 weeks; hearing begins.\u201d The fifth stage is labeled \u201c24 weeks; lungs begin to develop.\u201d The sixth stage is labeled \u201c28 weeks; brain grows rapidly.\u201d The seventh stage is labeled \u201c32 weeks; bones fully develop.\u201d The eighth stage is labeled \u201c36 weeks; muscles fully develop.\u201d The ninth stage is labeled \u201c40 weeks; full-term development.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"763\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.8. Development.<\/strong> During the fetal stage, the baby\u2019s brain develops and the body adds size and weight, until the fetus reaches full-term development.[\/caption]\r\n<h1>Prenatal Development<\/h1>\r\nHow did you come to be who you are? From your beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development\u202foccurred in an orderly and delicate sequence.\u202fThere are three\u202fmain\u202fstages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Let\u2019s\u202fexplore\u202fwhat happens to the developing baby in each of these stages.\r\n<h2>Germinal Stage (Conception to Week 2)<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Each biological parent contributes DNA at conception, when sperm and egg unite to form a single-celled zygote.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Growth and development of the zygote are guided by genetic instructions, coded in DNA within 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In mammals, sex is determined by specific chromosome contributions: females are typically XX and males are typically XY.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>As shown in Figure LD.9, (a) Sperm and ovum fuse at conception. (b) 23 pairs of human chromosomes, showing sex chromosomes: one large X and a smaller Y.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The zygote divides and multiplies through mitosis, becoming more specialised and forming different organs and body parts.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Embryonic Stage (Weeks 2 to 8)<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>After dividing to about 150 cells, the organism implants in the uterus lining and is called an embryo.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The placenta forms, connecting to the uterus to provide nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Basic structures develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Organs form and begin to function, with a detectable heartbeat and the neural tube developing into the spinal cord and brain.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Fetal Stage (Week 8\/9 and Onward)<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The embryo becomes a fetus, taking on the recognisable form of a human being.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sex organs begin to differentiate; by 16 weeks, fingers, toes, and fingerprints are fully developed.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>By 24 weeks, the fetus weighs up to 1.4 pounds and can respond to sounds.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>By 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth, weighing about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>By week 37, all organ systems are developed enough for survival outside the uterus.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Prenatal Toxins and Other Influences<\/h2>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The placenta provides nourishment and oxygen, but also allows passage of substances ingested by the pregnant parent.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Teratogens<\/strong> are environmental agents that cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus, with significant impact during early pregnancy.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Lead exposure can cause cognitive impairments and is a global health concern (Koller et al., 2004).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>In the United States, lead poisoning deaths are comparable to those caused by smoking tobacco (O\u2019Connor et al., 2020).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Recreational drugs like alcohol and tobacco, radiation, and viruses such as HIV, herpes, and rubella are considered teratogens.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>High stress during pregnancy can lead to children with enhanced stress responses (Leung et al., 2010).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-325\" title=\"Side by side photos. Left photo shows microscope image of sperm fusing with ovum. Right image shows 23 pairs of chromosomes in an array.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-300x114.png\" alt=\"Side by side photos. Left photo shows microscope image of sperm fusing with ovum. Right image shows 23 pairs of chromosomes in an array.\" width=\"350\" height=\"133\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.9. Pre-natal development.<\/strong> (a) Sperm and ovum fuse at the point of\u202fconception. (b) 23 pairs of human chromosomes inherited from each parent, box displays the sex chromosomes; one large X and a smaller Y in this individual.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/wdrtD9cEQwo?si=93eHSVYEAjeEU_Pi\">Prenatal Development - From Conception to Birth - Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage (29 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/wdrtD9cEQwo?si=93eHSVYEAjeEU_Pi\r\n\r\n\u201cPrenatal Development - From Conception to Birth - Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage\u201d video by Psych Explained is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.\r\n<h1>Infancy Through Childhood<\/h1>\r\nThe average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. \u202fAlthough small, a newborn is not completely helpless because\u202ftheir\u202freflexes and sensory capacities help\u202fthem\u202finteract with the environment from the moment of birth. All healthy babies are born with\u202fnewborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to\u202fspecific\u202fforms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until\u202fthey\u2019re\u202fcapable of more complex \u202fbehaviours; these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4\u20135 months old.\r\n<h2>Let\u2019s\u202fTake a Look\u202fat Some of These Newborn Reflexes<\/h2>\r\nThe <strong>rooting reflex<\/strong> is the newborn\u2019s response to anything that touches their cheek; when you stroke a baby\u2019s cheek, they naturally\u202fturn\u202ftheir head in that direction and begin to suck. The <strong>sucking reflex<\/strong> is the automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants do with their mouths.\u202fYou can observe the <strong>grasping reflex<\/strong>\u202fif you put your finger into a newborn\u2019s hand,\u202fthey\u202fautomatically\u202fgrasp\u202fanything that touches their palms.\r\n\r\nThe <strong>Moro reflex<\/strong> is the newborn\u2019s response when a baby feels like they are falling. The baby spreads their arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries. How do you think these reflexes promote survival in the first months of life?\r\n\r\nWatch this video, created by the Inter-Tribal Council of Michigan, describing and showing newborn reflexes, to learn more.\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/0vrdkzOnGgo?si=SY84Ik8dZWIx6IVd\">Newborn Reflexes: The Power of Your Newborn (5 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/0vrdkzOnGgo?si=SY84Ik8dZWIx6IVd\r\n\r\n\u201cNewborn Reflexes: The Power of Your Newborn\u201d video by Inter-Tribal Council of Michigan is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.\r\n<h2>What Can Young Infants See, Hear, and Smell?<\/h2>\r\nNewborn infants\u2019 sensory abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed. Many of a newborn\u2019s innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers and other humans.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Although vision is their least developed sense, newborns already show a preference for faces.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Babies who are just a few days old also prefer human voices; they will listen to voices longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004). They seem to prefer the voice of the parent in whose womb the baby developed over a stranger\u2019s voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the pregnant parent\u2019s voice and of a stranger\u2019s voice. When the infants heard their parent\u2019s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nNewborns also have a strong sense of smell.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Newborn babies can distinguish the smell of the parent who was pregnant from that of others.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>1-week-old babies who were being breastfed were placed between two gauze pads. One gauze pad was from the bra of a nursing parent who was a stranger, and the other gauze pad was from the bra of the infant\u2019s own nursing parent. More than two-thirds of the week-old babies turned toward the gauze pad with their own nursing parent\u2019s scent (MacFarlane (1978).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Physical Development<\/h2>\r\nDuring infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid.\u202fOn average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds.\u202fBy the age of 2, this weight will have quadrupled, with most 2-year-olds\u202fweighing between 20 and 40 pounds (WHO\u202fMulticentre\u202fGrowth Reference Study Group, 2006).\u202f Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old. During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year.\r\n\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-326\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719.png\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler. To the right is a child sitting outside. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"350\" height=\"119\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.10. Physical development.<\/strong> Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe\u202fnervous system continues to grow and develop\u202fafter\u202fbirth;\u202feach neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called <strong>blooming<\/strong>. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of <strong>pruning<\/strong>, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning\u202fallows\u202fthe brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.\r\n\r\nThe size of our brains increases rapidly.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by the age of 6 the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. The frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning are associated with cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2>Movement<\/h2>\r\nMotor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning.\r\n\r\n<strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.\r\n\r\nFine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).\r\n\r\n<strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong> focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping). As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children typically achieve at certain age ranges (Table LD.5).\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90 percent of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90 percent of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nCaregivers should be concerned about a child who is displaying delays on several milestones, since some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.\r\n<table style=\"width: 100%\"><caption>Table LD.5. Developmental milestones, ages 2\u20135 years<\/caption>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20.116414%\" scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 19.883586%\" scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\r\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">2<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Sorts shapes and colours; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">3<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">4<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Names colours and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">5<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\r\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2>Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\nIn addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that a child\u2019s ability to understand objects, such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken, is a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment.\r\n\r\nToday, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect about that. Researchers have found that even very young children understand\u202fphysical properties of\u202fobjects long before they have\u202fdirect\u202fexperience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987;\u202fBaillargeon, Li,\u202fGertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them.\r\n\r\nIn one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was\u202factually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure LD.11).\u202fBaillargeon\u202f(1987) concluded that the infants knew that solid objects cannot pass through each other.\r\n\r\nBaillargeon\u2019s\u202ffindings suggest that very young children\u202fhave an understanding of\u202fobjects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"975\"]<img class=\"wp-image-327 size-full\" title=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram.jpeg\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.11. Baillargeon\u2019s study.<\/strong> In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLike physical milestones, there are also cognitive milestones\u202fchildren typically reach at certain ages. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? \u202fWe can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realise that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.\r\n\r\nPreschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name\u202fcolours, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humour in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d\r\n\r\nAn important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognise that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).\r\n\r\nWatch this video outlining the basics of Theory of Mind and showing young children engaging in a classic \u2018false belief\u2019 or ToM activity \u2013 the \u2018Sally-Anne\u2019 test.\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/tpaMMYye65E?si=_HLsAuYONpugLYXf\">Theory of Mind (4 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/tpaMMYye65E?si=_HLsAuYONpugLYXf\r\n\r\n<span data-sheets-root=\"1\" data-sheets-value=\"{&quot;1&quot;:2,&quot;2&quot;:&quot;\u201cName of Video\u201d video by YouTube Channel is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.&quot;}\" data-sheets-userformat=\"{&quot;2&quot;:513,&quot;3&quot;:{&quot;1&quot;:0},&quot;12&quot;:0}\">\u201cTheory of Mind\u201d video by BrainFacts.org is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/span>\r\n\r\nCognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old):\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>The child\u2019s thought processes become more logical and organised when dealing with concrete information.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The child understands concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The child can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-328\" title=\"A girl kicks a soccer ball. \" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50.png\" alt=\"A girl kicks a soccer ball. \" width=\"350\" height=\"270\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.12. Soccer player.<\/strong>[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Language Development<\/h2>\r\nOne well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition.\u202fThe order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983).\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At birth, babies apparently recognise the voice of their birth parent, and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their birth parent and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Babies begin to coo almost immediately. <strong>Cooing<\/strong> is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nAfter cooing, the baby starts to babble. <strong>Babbling<\/strong> begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect them to say their first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nDuring the early childhood years, children\u2019s vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201c<strong>vocabulary spurt<\/strong>\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>5-year-olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Seven-year-olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nYou can read more about the development of language in the Intelligence and Language chapter.\r\n<h2>Attachment<\/h2>\r\nPsychosocial development happens as children build relationships, interact with others, and learn to handle their emotions. A key part of social and emotional growth is forming strong attachments, especially in infancy. Attachment refers to a deep emotional connection with others, typically between a child and their caregiver. This bond is crucial and forms more easily in the early years, indicating a sensitive period for emotional development. Developmental psychologists explore important questions about this process, such as: How do bonds between parents and infants develop? What impact does neglect have on these bonds? Why do children form different types of attachments?\r\n\r\nResearchers John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond that\u202fan\u202finfant forms\u202fwith the parent who birthed them\u202f(Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of <strong>secure base<\/strong> to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (Bowlby, 1988). A\u202fsecure base\u202fis a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.\r\n\r\nBowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment:\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li>The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure LD.13).<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-329\" title=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2.jpeg\" alt=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" width=\"350\" height=\"240\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.13. Mutually enjoyable interactions.<\/strong> Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the <em>Strange Situation<\/em> procedure to study attachment between parents and their infants (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970).\u202fIn the Strange Situation, the\u202fprimary caregiver and child (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore their surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The caregiver then leaves the baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, the caregiver returns to comfort their child.\r\n\r\nBased on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganised attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990).\r\n<h3>Secure attachment<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Most common type of attachment.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Toddler prefers their parent (the attachment figure) over a stranger.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Toddler uses the attachment figure as a secure base to explore the environment.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Toddler seeks out parent in times of stress.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children are distressed when caregivers leave the room in the Strange Situation experiment but happy upon their return.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Caregivers are sensitive and responsive to their needs.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Avoidant attachment<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Child is unresponsive to the parent.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Child does not use the parent as a secure base.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Child does not appear to care if the parent leaves.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Child reacts to the parent the same way they react to a stranger.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Child is slow to show a positive reaction when the parent returns.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Resistant attachment<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Children show clingy behaviour but reject attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children do not explore the toys in the room due to fear.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children become extremely disturbed and angry with the parent during separation in the Strange Situation.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Children are difficult to comfort when the parent returns.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3>Disorganised attachment<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Children behave oddly in the Strange Situation, such as freezing, running around erratically, or trying to run away when the caregiver returns.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Is most often seen in children who have been abused \u2013 which disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-330\" title=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"350\" height=\"262\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.14. Secure attachment.<\/strong> In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing them to securely explore their environment.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van\u202fIjzendoorn\u202f&amp;\u202fSagi-Schwartz, 2008).\r\n\r\nThe next video explains and shows the process involved with the strange situation test, originally developed by Ainsworth.\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/m_6rQk7jlrc?si=lsZLznjlvLF00f_o\">The Strange Situation | Mary Ainsworth, 1969 | Developmental Psychology (4.5 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/m_6rQk7jlrc?si=lsZLznjlvLF00f_o\r\n\r\n\u201cThe Strange Situation | Mary Ainsworth, 1969 | Developmental Psychology\u201d video by Psychology Unlocked is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.\r\n\r\nJust as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop?\u202fIf you place a baby in front of a mirror, they will reach out to touch their image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognise that the person in the mirror is them. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the <strong>mirror test<\/strong>, this\u202fbehaviour\u202fis demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992).\r\n\r\nAt 18 months\u202fold\u202fthey would touch their own noses during the mirror test when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces.\r\n\r\nBy 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.\r\n\r\nChildren from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social\u202fbehaviour\u202fonce they have established a self-concept.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>through play children practice performing gender roles (Chick,\u202fHeilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nBy 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>When children experience success in these areas, it contributes to a positive sense of self.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nOnce children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority).<\/li>\r\n \t<li>At this age, children recognise their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nDevelopment of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>More confident<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Do better in school,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Act more independently,<\/li>\r\n \t<li>More willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nFormation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is\u202ffavourable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalise the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).\r\n\r\nOne behavioural aspect that contributes to children\u2019s developing sense of self-identity is play. Children spend a significant portion of their day playing;\u202fpreschoolers\u202foften spend\u202fmost\u202fof the day engaged in some sort of play activity.\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Play is an important aspect of social and cognitive development, as it makes social learning something children desire to engage in.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Play also provides the space for children to begin practicing social skills, such as\u202fhumour, which has been found to influence peer acceptance and perceived social competence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>It has even been argued that play is an essential element in the acquisition of language and concept meaning.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nGiven the integral role of play in children's lives, it becomes evident that activities such as play are not merely for entertainment but are pivotal in the development of self-concept, motivation, learning, and the establishment of secure relationships. Through play, children not only engage in essential social and cognitive development but also explore and affirm their identities, preferences, and abilities. This exploration is crucial for fostering a positive self-concept, which in turn supports confidence, independence, and a willingness to embrace new experiences. As children navigate through various stages of development, from recognising themselves in mirrors to identifying with group memberships and evaluating their competencies, play serves as a constant, enriching backdrop that enhances their understanding of themselves and their place in the world.\r\n<h1>Adolescence<\/h1>\r\n<h2>Physical Development<\/h2>\r\nAdolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely.\r\n<h2>Sexual Development<\/h2>\r\nSeveral physical changes occur during puberty, specifically the maturing of the:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>adrenal glands;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>sex glands;<\/li>\r\n \t<li>primary sexual characteristics\u202f (organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus, ovaries, and testes); and<\/li>\r\n \t<li>secondary sexual characteristics\u202f (physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as\u202fdevelopment of breasts and hips,\u202fdevelopment of facial hair and a deepened voice).<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nA more complete description of sexual and gender identity development is given in the chapter on Gender and Sexuality.\r\n<h2>Brain Development<\/h2>\r\nThe adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty, brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking\u202fbehaviours\u202fand emotional outbursts, possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing (Figure LD.14). Recall that this area is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning, and it is still maturing into early adulthood (Casey,\u202fTottenham, Liston, &amp;\u202fDurston, 2005).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"487\"]<img class=\"wp-image-331 size-full\" title=\"An illustration of a brain is shown with the frontal lobe labeled.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain is shown with the frontal lobe labeled.\" width=\"487\" height=\"362\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.15. Brain development.<\/strong> Brain growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWatch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/DHljv1t2_uk?si=qENRY9t5EQ9iUHM6\">Tricky Topics: Myelination of the Prefrontal Cortex (4 minutes)<\/a>\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/youtu.be\/DHljv1t2_uk?si=qENRY9t5EQ9iUHM6\r\n\r\n\u201cTricky Topics: Myelination of the Prefrontal Cortex\u201d video by FirstYearPsych Dalhousie is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.\r\n<h2>Cognitive Development<\/h2>\r\nMore complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest that this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity; in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal operational thought. Teen thinking is also characterised by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas (Figure LD.16). In addition, it\u2019s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms.\r\n\r\nCognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory,\u202fTomer, &amp;\u202fAharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem-solving and conflict avoidance.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_332\" align=\"aligncenter\" width=\"350\"]<img class=\"wp-image-332\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28.png\" alt=\"Two construction workers work through a problem. \" width=\"350\" height=\"270\" \/> <strong>Figure LD.16. Problem solving.<\/strong> More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest that this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity; in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985).[\/caption]\r\n<h2>Psychosocial Development<\/h2>\r\nAdolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect of them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents\u2019 lives.\r\n\r\nAs adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, &amp;\u202fCrouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair,\u202fLippman, &amp; Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school\u202fbehaviour\u202fproblems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). It appears that most teens don\u2019t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg &amp; Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos\u202f&amp; Almeida, 1992).\r\n\r\nThere is emerging research on the adolescent brain. Galvan, Hare, Voss, Glover, and Casey (2007) examined its role in risk-taking behaviour. They used fMRI to assess the readings\u2019 relationship to risk-taking, risk perception, and impulsivity. The researchers found that there was no correlation between brain activity in the neural reward centre and impulsivity or risk perception. However, activity in that part of the brain was correlated with taking risks. In other words, risk-taking adolescents experienced brain activity in the reward centre. The idea, however, that adolescents are more impulsive than other demographics was challenged in their research, which included children and adults.\r\n<h1>Emerging Adult (Ages 18 to 29)<\/h1>\r\nLet's now consider the relatively new-to-psychology concept of \"emerging adulthood\". This developmental stage covers psychological, social, and spiritual development between ages 18 and 29. Jeffrey Arnett, a psychology researcher, proposed this distinct phase in human development (Arnett, 2000). The emergence of this developmental stage can be attributed to various societal shifts, such as later ages of marriage and parenthood and extended periods spent in higher education (Arnett, 2000). Our understanding of emerging adulthood and its impact on later life stages is still developing.\r\n\r\nThis Emerging Adult stage acts as a developmental crucible where patterns are formed that can shape a person's entire life path. It acts as a developmental crucible where patterns are formed that can shape a person's entire life trajectory (Arnett, 2000). Behaviours, values, relationships, and more are moulded during this time.\r\n\r\nThere are five primary characteristics that define this developmental stage: identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling 'in-between', and possibilities. Identity exploration stands at the centre, with the other four elements extending from it. This exploration stage involves emerging adults navigating new identities around love, work, and worldview, influencing their long-term life directions and commitments (Arnett, 2000).\r\n<ol>\r\n \t<li><strong>Identity Exploration:<\/strong> This is when young adults explore different aspects of who they are, trying out various roles, beliefs, and career paths to find what fits them best. It's a time of questioning and discovering oneself in areas like love, work, and personal beliefs.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Instability: <\/strong>This refers to the changes and uncertainties in life during emerging adulthood, such as moving frequently, changing jobs, or experiencing shifts in relationships. It's a period marked by transitions and a lack of permanence in various aspects of life.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Self-focus:<\/strong> During this stage, individuals focus more on themselves as they make decisions that will shape their future. It's a time of independence, where there's less concern about others' expectations and more emphasis on personal growth and self-discovery.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Feeling 'In-Between':<\/strong> This is the sensation of being caught between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood. Emerging adults often feel they are no longer teenagers but not yet fully adults, navigating a middle ground as they work towards adult responsibilities and independence.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><strong>Possibilities:<\/strong> This characteristic highlights the optimism and sense of opportunity prevalent in emerging adulthood. It's a time when individuals feel that many paths are open to them, and they can envision numerous potential futures, filled with hope for achieving their dreams.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>\r\nIn conclusion, emerging adulthood is a relatively modern societal phenomenon in response to delaying parenthood and extended years in higher education. Arnett argues that emerging adulthood is an integral and unique phase in human development. It is a period where lifelong patterns are set, identities are explored, and significant transitions are made, ultimately shaping an individual's future life trajectory (Arnett, 2000). While the emerging adult stage is useful, it is problematic that it is built upon young adults living in the gap before having a family (individualistic and exclusionary of people who raise children in their early 20s) and the requirement of staying in higher education (elitist and expensive) for a longer period.\r\n<h1>Technology\u2019s Impact on the Development of Children and Youth<\/h1>\r\nThe impact of technology on the development of children and youth is significant, touching on various aspects of their lives. This summary provides a general overview of how television, cell phones, social media, and video games affect young people.\r\n<h2>Television<\/h2>\r\nTelevision has both positive and negative effects on children. Educational programs, like \"Sesame Street\", can promote learning and improve academic skills (Linebarger &amp; Walker, 2005). However, watching too much TV can cut into reading time, which leads to lower reading scores and attention problems in children (Williams, 1986). This means that when children spend a lot of time watching TV, they might not do as well in school or might have trouble focusing. Also, watching violent TV shows is linked to an increase in aggressive behaviours under some circumstances (Anderson et al., 2001).\r\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/vs-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.9: Deep Dive - TV\u2019s Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\r\n<h2>Cell Phones<\/h2>\r\nCell Phones are everywhere and are used by children and teenagers for talking, texting, and going online. They can be useful for staying in touch with friends and family and for learning. But, using cell phones too much can distract users from homework and lead to stress (Lepp et al., 2015). For young people who feel left out or different, cell phones can offer support through social networks. However, since cell phones are a major way that children and youth access social media, these devices can also be a way for people who bully to target young phone users (Hinduja &amp; Patchin, 2010).\r\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/cell-phones-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.10: Deep Dive - Cell Phones\u2019 Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\r\n<h2>Social Media<\/h2>\r\nSocial Media platforms like Instagram and Snapchat allow children and teenagers to express themselves, share photos, and connect with friends. These platforms can be especially important for young people who feel marginalised, giving them a space to find others with similar experiences (Craig &amp; McInroy, 2014). But, spending a lot of time on social media is linked to feeling anxious, depressed, and lonely (Twenge et al., 2018). This is because constant comparison with others online can make young people feel bad about themselves.\r\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/social-medias-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.11: Deep Dive - Social Media's Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\r\n<h2>Video Games<\/h2>\r\nVideo Games can be fun and can also teach problem-solving skills. However, games with violent content might make children more likely to act aggressively (Anderson et al., 2010). The world of video games often lacks diversity, which means that not all children see themselves represented in the games they play. This can make some feel left out or stereotyped (Williams et al., 2009). Games that include different kinds of characters and stories can help make gaming a more positive experience for everyone.\r\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/the-impact-of-video-game-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.12: Deep Dive - The Impact of Video Game on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\r\nIn summary, technology can help children learn and stay connected, but it also has downsides like distraction, stress, and exposure to harmful content. It's important for children to have a balanced approach to using technology. This means enjoying the benefits of technology while also being aware of the risks and knowing how to manage them. Parents, teachers, and caregivers can help by setting limits on screen time, talking about what children are watching or playing, and encouraging them to spend time offline too.\r\n<h1>When Harm Impacts Healthy Development: The Impact of the Indian Residential School System<\/h1>\r\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\r\n\r\n<strong>Content Disclosure:<\/strong> This section contains discussions on the psychological and physiological impacts of stress, with a focus on the historical trauma experienced by Indigenous communities, particularly related to Indian Residential Schools. It includes descriptions of trauma, cultural genocide, and abuse, which may be distressing or triggering for some readers. The content is presented with a trauma-informed approach and includes both scientific terminology and plain language explanations. Please consider your comfort level with these topics before reading.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\nChildhood and adolescence are life stages pivotal to a person\u2019s developmental maturation (Cabral &amp; Patel, 2020; Cassidy &amp; Shaver, 2018; White et al., 2017). Experiences such as adversity, loss, trauma, and\/or maltreatment have been linked to feelings of anxiety and depression (Hovens et al., 2015; Jurena et al., 2020) as well as issues with attachment in older adult relationships (Cohen et al., 2012; Lo et al., 2017), issues in development (Sege et al., 2017), and other health problems (Asselmann et al., 2018; Nelson et al., 2020; Rojo-Wissar et al., 2021).\r\n\r\nSince confederation (1867), the Canadian federal government has continued to forcefully attempt total assimilation of Indigenous Peoples into \u201cEuro-Canadian culture and society\u201d (Truth and Reconciliation Commission [TRC], 2015). One of the ways in which the government attempted to do this was through the Indian Residential School (IRS) system (TRC, 2015). The IRS system in Canada has often been referred to as a series of concentration camps (TRC, 2015) or \u201cboarding schools\u201dused to house Indigenous children. Unlawful and immoral acts perpetuated in the IRSs have been termed \u201ccultural genocide\u201d at the international level (TRC, 2015; United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples [UNDRIP], 2007).\r\n<h2>Impact on Attachment<\/h2>\r\nFrom 1876 to 1996, the Canadian government took hundreds of thousands of Indigenous children, some as young as 4, from their families and placed them in residential schools (IRSs) (TRC, 2015). If Indigenous parents or family members tried to stop the police from taking their children, they could be jailed or even killed (Bombay et al., 2014ab; Facing History and Ourselves, 2021; TRC, 2015). At these schools, children were often forced to change their appearance drastically and were not allowed to use their names or speak their native languages. Instead, they were given numbers and punished if they spoke their own language, which for many was the only language they knew (TRC, 2015). Being separated from family under such stressful conditions can cause long-term health issues. Research shows that short-term separations can harm health later in life (R\u00e4ikk\u00f6nen et al., 2011), and longer separations increase the risk of depression (Bohman et al., 2017; Coffino, 2009) and anxiety (Bryant et al., 2017; L\u00e4hdepuro et al., 2019).\r\n<h2>Intergenerational Impacts<\/h2>\r\nFederal, institutional and academic inquiries into the IRS system continue to highlight various atrocities that many IRS Survivors experienced, such as spiritual, verbal, emotional, physical and sexual assault, abuse and violence (TRC, 2015). Trauma of this magnitude continues to impact not only the Survivors, but their children, grandchildren, and other relatives (Bombay et al., 2014ab; Bombay et al., 2014ab; Lehrner &amp; Yehuda, 2018). For example, Indigenous children of IRS Survivors are more likely to have poor psychological health because of the IRS impacts on their parents\u2019 psychosocial functioning and health (Bombay et al., 2011; 2014ab; 2018; Elias et al., 2012).\r\n<h2>Biopsychosocial Framework<\/h2>\r\nThe Biopsychosocial Framework shows how our health is influenced by a mix of biological, psychological, and social factors. It's a tool that helps health professionals understand why certain physical or mental health problems happen (Karunamuni et al., 2020). This approach reveals that the education provided by many residential schools was substandard, with poor teaching, inadequate resources, and a high level of racism (Barnes &amp; Josefowitz, 2019; TRC, 2015). As a result, many survivors left school without the necessary academic skills, such as language proficiency, and were often unprepared for work as adults (Miller, 1996; TRC, 2015; Barnes et al., 2006). The deep trauma from their experiences at these schools has led many survivors to face challenges with their mental and physical health, their ability to connect with Indigenous cultural practices and communities, and their overall well-being (Barnes &amp; Josefowitz, 2019; Ogle et al., 2013; Miller, 1996; TRC, 2015; Vachon et al., 2015).\r\n\r\nYou can read more about the effects of trauma and stress in the chapter on Well-being.\r\n<h2>Cultural Resilience<\/h2>\r\nWhile Indigenous Peoples in Canada continue to face premeditated colonial assimilation tactics, such as the child welfare crisis or \u201cmodern day IRS system\u201d (Ma et al., 2019; McMillan, 2021; Mitchell, 2019), resilience among Indigenous populations in Canada continues to be researched (Bombay et al., 2010; 2011; Paul et al., 2022). To date, various facets of cultural identity among Indigenous populations in Canada, such as the sense of belonging to a cultural community, provide protection against the negative effects of colonization (Bombay et al., 2014ab; First Nations Health Authority, 2019; Paul et al., 2022). While it has been suggested that Indigenous culture helps to improve and maintain good health and happiness for Indigenous individuals, continued research is needed to better understand precisely how these cultural wisdoms and practices can be used in care models that are most suitable for and respectful of Indigenous People.\r\n<h1>Summary<\/h1>\r\nIn our exploration of \"Ages, Stages, and Milestones of Development\", we have studied human growth from the earliest moments of conception to the phase of emerging adulthood. This section has highlighted the biological, cognitive, and psychosocial transformations that occur, each stage building upon the last to shape the complex individuals we become. By examining attachment, self-concept, and the unique challenges of adolescence, we've gained a holistic understanding of the developmental process. It is also important to be mindful of how technologies such as TV, cell phones, social media, and video games can benefit and interfere\u00a0 with healthy development.\r\n\r\nThe profound impact of the Indian Residential School system on Indigenous communities underscores the importance of understanding how adverse experiences shape developmental pathways. Childhood and adolescence are critical stages for building healthy attachments and self-concepts, but trauma and loss can significantly hinder this process.\r\n\r\nOur lifespan involves many developmental pathways, from prenatal factors to societal impacts, that contribute to our physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual growth. Rather than being solely negative influences in our lives, developmental challenges and setbacks can inspire us to look for solutions, build resilience, and open us up to new learning experiences, enriching our journey through life's varied stages and seasons.\r\n<h1>Chapter Conclusion<\/h1>\r\nIn this chapter, we explored lifespan developmental science, examining how individuals grow and change from birth to old age. We started by reviewing key research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic observation, case studies, and controlled experiments. These methods help us understand human development patterns and provide evidence-based insights into how people evolve over time.\r\n\r\nWe then looked at major debates and theories in human development, discussing whether development is continuous or occurs in distinct stages and the roles of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping individuals. We introduced the concept of normal development, encouraging consideration of the wide range of human growth and influencing factors.\r\n\r\nSignificant Big Picture models of development include the Indigenous Connectedness Framework and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory. These theories highlight the role of social and environmental contexts, offering a holistic view of individual and community interconnectedness.\r\n\r\nIn this chapter we also discussed several focused perspectives on lifespan development. In particular, the social construction of cognition (Vygotsky) and stages of psychosocial (Erikson), cognitive (Piaget), and moral development (Kohlberg and Gilligan) showing how our thinking, social relationships, and moral reasoning change over time. We also examined theories on Racial, Feminist, and Spiritual identity formation as well as\u00a0 biological development stages from prenatal growth to adulthood, emphasising genetics and environmental impacts on growth. We also discussed the factors that influence the development of attachment styles and self-concept.\r\n\r\nNext we looked at the impact of technologies like television, cell phones, social media, and video games. We finished this chapter with a critical discussion of the impact of catastrophic harms on the development of survivors of the Indian Residential School system and the attempted cultural genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.\r\n\r\nConcluding the chapter, we gained a deep appreciation for the complexity and diversity of human development. This journey through life's stages, supported by scientific research and theoretical frameworks, broadens our understanding of the human experience. This chapter has laid the foundation of the science of developmental psychology and given us a deep understanding of the nature of human growth. Along the way we have learned the importance of practicing a holistic, interrelated, interdependent, and inclusive approach to studying the human lifespan.\r\n<h1>Story Part 2 - Returning to the Child Who Said \"Sky\"<\/h1>\r\nAs we conclude this chapter I want to return to the story in the opening comic. I think it gives us more than just an anecdote; it is a metaphor for the entire field of developmental psychology. Just as the child's answer, \"sky\", opened a window into their stage of cognitive development, each theory and research method we explored offers insights into the vast \u201csky\u201d of human growth and change. From the naturalistic observations that capture behaviour in its most genuine form to the controlled experiments that discover the important details of development, we've seen the many ways in which individuals evolve from infancy through to old age.\r\n\r\nAs we close this chapter, inspired by the child's profound yet simple answer, we're reminded of the importance of approaching the study of lifespan development with openness, curiosity, and a willingness to be surprised. The field invites us to look beyond our preconceptions and biases, to question the 'errors' and 'misunderstandings' not just in others but within ourselves, and to embrace the vastness of the human experience with the same wonder and wisdom with which a child sees the sky. This chapter has laid a foundation not just for academic inquiry but for a lifelong journey of discovery about how we grow, adapt, and thrive throughout our lives, encouraging us to keep looking up, always ready to be amazed by the endless possibilities of development. I hope this exploration into lifespan development has kindled in you a curiosity to view your own \u201cerrors\u201d as stepping stones and to pursue your personal growth with the same passion that has fueled my career in this fascinating field.\r\n<h1>Image Attributions<\/h1>\r\n<strong>Figure LD.8. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.8 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a><\/span>.\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.9. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.7<\/span> as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>. and Figure LD.6 (b)\u00a0as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/caul-cbua.pressbooks.pub\/intropsychneuro\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Introduction to Psychology &amp; Neuroscience (2nd Edition)<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License.<\/a>\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.10. <\/strong>Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/bongbabyhousevn-15950077\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7186087\">T\u00fa Nguy\u1ec5n<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7186087\">Pixabay<\/a>,\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/b13923790-23007053\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=6578335\">b13923790<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=6578335\">Pixabay,<\/a>\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/alisadyson-25286447\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7223110\">Alisa Dyson<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7223110\">Pixabay<\/a> and\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/hansdakfamilyministry-11855894\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4102042\">hansdakfamilyministry<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4102042\">Pixabay<\/a> are\u00a0used under the <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\">Pixabay Content License<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.11. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.11 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.12. <\/strong>Soccer player by Marie Bartlett is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 4.0 license<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.13. <\/strong>utually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond. Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/6205857\/?tab=photos&amp;order=latest&amp;pagi=1\">balouriarajesh<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\">Pixabay<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.14. <\/strong>Figure 9.14 by Kerry Ceszyk as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.15. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.16 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.<\/span>\r\n\r\n<strong>Figure LD.16. <\/strong>Problem solving by Marie Bartlett is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 4.0 license<\/a>.","rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: right\"><a class=\"glossary-term\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\" aria-describedby=\"definition\" href=\"#term_333_595\">Approximate reading time<\/a>: 51 minutes<\/p>\n<p>Development\u202ffrom conception into a fully grown human involves \u202fmajor\u202falterations\u202fto anatomy, physiology,\u202fcognition, and\u202f behaviour, and many of these\u202fchanges follow a\u202fpredictable,\u202fage-based\u202fprogression.\u202fThis\u202fsection will\u202fdiscuss prenatal, infant, child, adolescent, and adult development\u202facross three domains: physical, cognitive, and psychosocial.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 731px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-324 size-full\" title=\"The growth of a fetus is shown using nine pictures in different stages of development. For each stage, there is a picture of a fetus which gets progressively larger and more mature. The first stage is labeled \u201c9 weeks; fetal stage begins.\u201d The second stage is labeled \u201c12 weeks; sex organs differentiate.\u201d The third stage is labeled \u201c16 weeks; fingers and toes develop.\u201d The fourth stage is labeled \u201c20 weeks; hearing begins.\u201d The fifth stage is labeled \u201c24 weeks; lungs begin to develop.\u201d The sixth stage is labeled \u201c28 weeks; brain grows rapidly.\u201d The seventh stage is labeled \u201c32 weeks; bones fully develop.\u201d The eighth stage is labeled \u201c36 weeks; muscles fully develop.\u201d The ninth stage is labeled \u201c40 weeks; full-term development.\u201d\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5.jpeg\" alt=\"The growth of a fetus is shown using nine pictures in different stages of development. For each stage, there is a picture of a fetus which gets progressively larger and more mature. The first stage is labeled \u201c9 weeks; fetal stage begins.\u201d The second stage is labeled \u201c12 weeks; sex organs differentiate.\u201d The third stage is labeled \u201c16 weeks; fingers and toes develop.\u201d The fourth stage is labeled \u201c20 weeks; hearing begins.\u201d The fifth stage is labeled \u201c24 weeks; lungs begin to develop.\u201d The sixth stage is labeled \u201c28 weeks; brain grows rapidly.\u201d The seventh stage is labeled \u201c32 weeks; bones fully develop.\u201d The eighth stage is labeled \u201c36 weeks; muscles fully develop.\u201d The ninth stage is labeled \u201c40 weeks; full-term development.\u201d\" width=\"731\" height=\"763\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5.jpeg 731w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5-287x300.jpeg 287w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5-65x68.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5-225x235.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/02\/Figure-LD.7-Stages-of-Fetal-Development-DIagram-5-350x365.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 731px) 100vw, 731px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.8. Development.<\/strong> During the fetal stage, the baby\u2019s brain develops and the body adds size and weight, until the fetus reaches full-term development.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h1>Prenatal Development<\/h1>\n<p>How did you come to be who you are? From your beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth, your prenatal development\u202foccurred in an orderly and delicate sequence.\u202fThere are three\u202fmain\u202fstages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Let\u2019s\u202fexplore\u202fwhat happens to the developing baby in each of these stages.<\/p>\n<h2>Germinal Stage (Conception to Week 2)<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>Each biological parent contributes DNA at conception, when sperm and egg unite to form a single-celled zygote.<\/li>\n<li>Growth and development of the zygote are guided by genetic instructions, coded in DNA within 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent.<\/li>\n<li>In mammals, sex is determined by specific chromosome contributions: females are typically XX and males are typically XY.<\/li>\n<li>As shown in Figure LD.9, (a) Sperm and ovum fuse at conception. (b) 23 pairs of human chromosomes, showing sex chromosomes: one large X and a smaller Y.<\/li>\n<li>The zygote divides and multiplies through mitosis, becoming more specialised and forming different organs and body parts.<\/li>\n<li>Fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Embryonic Stage (Weeks 2 to 8)<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>After dividing to about 150 cells, the organism implants in the uterus lining and is called an embryo.<\/li>\n<li>The placenta forms, connecting to the uterus to provide nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord.<\/li>\n<li>Basic structures develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen.<\/li>\n<li>Organs form and begin to function, with a detectable heartbeat and the neural tube developing into the spinal cord and brain.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Fetal Stage (Week 8\/9 and Onward)<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>The embryo becomes a fetus, taking on the recognisable form of a human being.<\/li>\n<li>Sex organs begin to differentiate; by 16 weeks, fingers, toes, and fingerprints are fully developed.<\/li>\n<li>By 24 weeks, the fetus weighs up to 1.4 pounds and can respond to sounds.<\/li>\n<li>By 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth, weighing about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long.<\/li>\n<li>By week 37, all organ systems are developed enough for survival outside the uterus.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Prenatal Toxins and Other Influences<\/h2>\n<ul>\n<li>The placenta provides nourishment and oxygen, but also allows passage of substances ingested by the pregnant parent.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Teratogens<\/strong> are environmental agents that cause damage to the developing embryo or fetus, with significant impact during early pregnancy.<\/li>\n<li>Lead exposure can cause cognitive impairments and is a global health concern (Koller et al., 2004).<\/li>\n<li>In the United States, lead poisoning deaths are comparable to those caused by smoking tobacco (O\u2019Connor et al., 2020).<\/li>\n<li>Recreational drugs like alcohol and tobacco, radiation, and viruses such as HIV, herpes, and rubella are considered teratogens.<\/li>\n<li>High stress during pregnancy can lead to children with enhanced stress responses (Leung et al., 2010).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-325\" title=\"Side by side photos. Left photo shows microscope image of sperm fusing with ovum. Right image shows 23 pairs of chromosomes in an array.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-300x114.png\" alt=\"Side by side photos. Left photo shows microscope image of sperm fusing with ovum. Right image shows 23 pairs of chromosomes in an array.\" width=\"350\" height=\"133\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-300x114.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-768x291.png 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-65x25.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-225x85.png 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4-350x133.png 350w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/LD7-1024x388-4.png 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.9. Pre-natal development.<\/strong> (a) Sperm and ovum fuse at the point of\u202fconception. (b) 23 pairs of human chromosomes inherited from each parent, box displays the sex chromosomes; one large X and a smaller Y in this individual.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/wdrtD9cEQwo?si=93eHSVYEAjeEU_Pi\">Prenatal Development &#8211; From Conception to Birth &#8211; Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage (29 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Prenatal Development - From Conception to Birth - Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/wdrtD9cEQwo?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\u201cPrenatal Development &#8211; From Conception to Birth &#8211; Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage\u201d video by Psych Explained is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/p>\n<h1>Infancy Through Childhood<\/h1>\n<p>The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. \u202fAlthough small, a newborn is not completely helpless because\u202ftheir\u202freflexes and sensory capacities help\u202fthem\u202finteract with the environment from the moment of birth. All healthy babies are born with\u202fnewborn reflexes: inborn automatic responses to\u202fspecific\u202fforms of stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until\u202fthey\u2019re\u202fcapable of more complex \u202fbehaviours; these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually disappear around 4\u20135 months old.<\/p>\n<h2>Let\u2019s\u202fTake a Look\u202fat Some of These Newborn Reflexes<\/h2>\n<p>The <strong>rooting reflex<\/strong> is the newborn\u2019s response to anything that touches their cheek; when you stroke a baby\u2019s cheek, they naturally\u202fturn\u202ftheir head in that direction and begin to suck. The <strong>sucking reflex<\/strong> is the automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants do with their mouths.\u202fYou can observe the <strong>grasping reflex<\/strong>\u202fif you put your finger into a newborn\u2019s hand,\u202fthey\u202fautomatically\u202fgrasp\u202fanything that touches their palms.<\/p>\n<p>The <strong>Moro reflex<\/strong> is the newborn\u2019s response when a baby feels like they are falling. The baby spreads their arms, pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries. How do you think these reflexes promote survival in the first months of life?<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video, created by the Inter-Tribal Council of Michigan, describing and showing newborn reflexes, to learn more.<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/0vrdkzOnGgo?si=SY84Ik8dZWIx6IVd\">Newborn Reflexes: The Power of Your Newborn (5 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Newborn Reflexes:  The Power of Your Newborn\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/0vrdkzOnGgo?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\u201cNewborn Reflexes: The Power of Your Newborn\u201d video by Inter-Tribal Council of Michigan is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/p>\n<h2>What Can Young Infants See, Hear, and Smell?<\/h2>\n<p>Newborn infants\u2019 sensory abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed. Many of a newborn\u2019s innate preferences facilitate interaction with caregivers and other humans.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Although vision is their least developed sense, newborns already show a preference for faces.<\/li>\n<li>Babies who are just a few days old also prefer human voices; they will listen to voices longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos &amp; Werker, 2004). They seem to prefer the voice of the parent in whose womb the baby developed over a stranger\u2019s voice (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/li>\n<li>3-week-old babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the pregnant parent\u2019s voice and of a stranger\u2019s voice. When the infants heard their parent\u2019s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills &amp; Melhuish, 1974).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Newborns also have a strong sense of smell.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Newborn babies can distinguish the smell of the parent who was pregnant from that of others.<\/li>\n<li>1-week-old babies who were being breastfed were placed between two gauze pads. One gauze pad was from the bra of a nursing parent who was a stranger, and the other gauze pad was from the bra of the infant\u2019s own nursing parent. More than two-thirds of the week-old babies turned toward the gauze pad with their own nursing parent\u2019s scent (MacFarlane (1978).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Physical Development<\/h2>\n<p>During infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body\u2019s physical development is rapid.\u202fOn average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds.\u202fBy the age of 2, this weight will have quadrupled, with most 2-year-olds\u202fweighing between 20 and 40 pounds (WHO\u202fMulticentre\u202fGrowth Reference Study Group, 2006).\u202f Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old. During this time children gain 5\u20137 pounds and grow about 2\u20133 inches per year.<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-326\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719.png\" alt=\"A collage of four photographs depicting babies is shown. From left to right they get progressively older. The far left photograph is a bundled up sleeping newborn. To the right is a picture of a toddler. To the right is a child sitting outside. To the far right is a child on a swing set.\" width=\"350\" height=\"119\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719.png 800w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719-300x102.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719-768x262.png 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719-65x22.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719-225x77.png 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/children-e1716929989719-350x119.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.10. Physical development.<\/strong> Children experience rapid physical changes through infancy and early childhood.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The\u202fnervous system continues to grow and develop\u202fafter\u202fbirth;\u202feach neural pathway forms thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period of rapid neural growth is called <strong>blooming<\/strong>. The blooming period of neural growth is then followed by a period of <strong>pruning<\/strong>, where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that pruning\u202fallows\u202fthe brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson, 2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain.<\/p>\n<p>The size of our brains increases rapidly.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The brain of a 2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by the age of 6 the brain is about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978).<\/li>\n<li>During early childhood (ages 3\u20136), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. The frontal lobes are associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control.<\/li>\n<li>Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size.<\/li>\n<li>The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget\u2019s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning are associated with cognitive advances (Kolb &amp; Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, &amp; Peuster, 1992).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2>Movement<\/h2>\n<p>Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor functioning.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Motor skills<\/strong> refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.<\/p>\n<p>Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon).<\/p>\n<p><strong>Gross motor skills<\/strong> focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping). As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that young children typically achieve at certain age ranges (Table LD.5).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>An example of a developmental milestone is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90 percent of babies achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old.<\/li>\n<li>Babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90 percent of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Caregivers should be concerned about a child who is displaying delays on several milestones, since some developmental delays can be identified and addressed through early intervention.<\/p>\n<table style=\"width: 100%\">\n<caption>Table LD.5. Developmental milestones, ages 2\u20135 years<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Age (years)<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Physical<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 20.116414%\" scope=\"col\">Personal\/Social<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 19.883586%\" scope=\"col\">Language<\/th>\n<th style=\"width: 20%\" scope=\"col\">Cognitive<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">2<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Plays alongside other children; copies adults<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Points to objects when named; puts 2\u20134 words together in a sentence<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Sorts shapes and colours; follows 2-step instructions<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">3<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Names familiar things; uses pronouns<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">4<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Catches balls; uses scissors<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Knows songs and rhymes by memory<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Names colours and numbers; begins writing letters<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">5<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20.116414%\">Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 19.883586%\">Speaks clearly; uses full sentences<\/td>\n<td style=\"width: 20%\">Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2>Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<p>In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought that a child\u2019s ability to understand objects, such as learning that a rattle makes a noise when shaken, is a cognitive skill that develops slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment.<\/p>\n<p>Today, developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect about that. Researchers have found that even very young children understand\u202fphysical properties of\u202fobjects long before they have\u202fdirect\u202fexperience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987;\u202fBaillargeon, Li,\u202fGertner, &amp; Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as 3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them.<\/p>\n<p>In one study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was\u202factually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event (Figure LD.11).\u202fBaillargeon\u202f(1987) concluded that the infants knew that solid objects cannot pass through each other.<\/p>\n<p>Baillargeon\u2019s\u202ffindings suggest that very young children\u202fhave an understanding of\u202fobjects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 975px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-327 size-full\" title=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram.jpeg\" alt=\"Image A shows a toy truck coasting along a track unobstructed. Image B shows a toy truck coasting along a track with a box in the background. Image C shows a truck coasting along a track and going through what appears to be an obstruction.\" width=\"975\" height=\"188\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram.jpeg 975w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram-300x58.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram-768x148.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram-65x13.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram-225x43.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.9-Baillargeons-Study-Diagram-350x67.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 975px) 100vw, 975px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.11. Baillargeon\u2019s study.<\/strong> In Baillargeon\u2019s study, infants observed a truck (a) roll down an unobstructed track, (b) roll down an unobstructed track with an obstruction (box) beside it, and (c) roll down and pass through what appeared to be an obstruction.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Like physical milestones, there are also cognitive milestones\u202fchildren typically reach at certain ages. For example, infants shake their head \u201cno\u201d around 6\u20139 months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like \u201cwave bye-bye\u201d or \u201cblow a kiss\u201d around 9\u201312 months. Remember Piaget\u2019s ideas about object permanence? \u202fWe can expect children to grasp the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around 8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12\u201324 months old) have mastered object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realise that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013). Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places when you ask them to find objects.<\/p>\n<p>Preschool-age children (i.e., 3\u20135 years old) also make steady progress in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name\u202fcolours, and tell you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after), and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin to enjoy the use of humour in stories. Because they can think symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask \u201cWhy?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that Piaget described 2\u20133 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not have an awareness of others\u2019 points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others, persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognise that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video outlining the basics of Theory of Mind and showing young children engaging in a classic \u2018false belief\u2019 or ToM activity \u2013 the \u2018Sally-Anne\u2019 test.<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/tpaMMYye65E?si=_HLsAuYONpugLYXf\">Theory of Mind (4 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Theory of Mind\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/tpaMMYye65E?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p><span data-sheets-root=\"1\" data-sheets-value=\"{&quot;1&quot;:2,&quot;2&quot;:&quot;\u201cName of Video\u201d video by YouTube Channel is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.&quot;}\" data-sheets-userformat=\"{&quot;2&quot;:513,&quot;3&quot;:{&quot;1&quot;:0},&quot;12&quot;:0}\">\u201cTheory of Mind\u201d video by BrainFacts.org is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/span><\/p>\n<p>Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6\u201311 years old):<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>The child\u2019s thought processes become more logical and organised when dealing with concrete information.<\/li>\n<li>The child understands concepts such as the past, present, and future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals.<\/li>\n<li>The child can process complex ideas such as addition and subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-328\" title=\"A girl kicks a soccer ball.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50.png\" alt=\"A girl kicks a soccer ball.\" width=\"350\" height=\"270\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50.png 1650w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-300x232.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-1024x791.png 1024w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-768x593.png 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-1536x1187.png 1536w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-225x174.png 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB4_Lifespan-Development_Sprort50-350x270.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.12. Soccer player.<\/strong><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Language Development<\/h2>\n<p>One well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language acquisition.\u202fThe order in which children learn language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch, 1983).<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and communication skills.<\/li>\n<li>At birth, babies apparently recognise the voice of their birth parent, and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by their birth parent and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom &amp; Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke &amp; Cortelyou, 1981).<\/li>\n<li>Children communicate information through gesturing long before they speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent language development (Iverson &amp; Goldin-Meadow, 2005).<\/li>\n<li>Babies begin to coo almost immediately. <strong>Cooing<\/strong> is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound (e.g., coo or ba).<\/li>\n<li>Babies replicate sounds from their own languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>After cooing, the baby starts to babble. <strong>Babbling<\/strong> begins with repeating a syllable, such as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect them to say their first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months.<\/li>\n<li>At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>During the early childhood years, children\u2019s vocabulary increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the \u201c<strong>vocabulary spurt<\/strong>\u201d and has been claimed to involve an expansion in vocabulary at a rate of 10\u201320 new words per week.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Recent research may indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far from universal (as discussed in Ganger &amp; Brent, 2004).<\/li>\n<li>5-year-olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week.<\/li>\n<li>Seven-year-olds speak fluently and use slang and clich\u00e9s (Stork &amp; Widdowson, 1974).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>You can read more about the development of language in the Intelligence and Language chapter.<\/p>\n<h2>Attachment<\/h2>\n<p>Psychosocial development happens as children build relationships, interact with others, and learn to handle their emotions. A key part of social and emotional growth is forming strong attachments, especially in infancy. Attachment refers to a deep emotional connection with others, typically between a child and their caregiver. This bond is crucial and forms more easily in the early years, indicating a sensitive period for emotional development. Developmental psychologists explore important questions about this process, such as: How do bonds between parents and infants develop? What impact does neglect have on these bonds? Why do children form different types of attachments?<\/p>\n<p>Researchers John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth conducted studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond that\u202fan\u202finfant forms\u202fwith the parent who birthed them\u202f(Bowlby, 1969). An infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout life. He used the concept of <strong>secure base<\/strong> to define a healthy attachment between parent and child (Bowlby, 1988). A\u202fsecure base\u202fis a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as they explore their surroundings.<\/p>\n<p>Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>The caregiver must be responsive to the child\u2019s physical, social, and emotional needs.<\/li>\n<li>The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969) (Figure LD.13).<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-329\" title=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2.jpeg\" alt=\"A man holds a baby in the air.\" width=\"350\" height=\"240\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2.jpeg 487w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2-300x206.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2-65x45.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2-225x154.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.11-Man-Holding-Baby-2-350x240.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.13. Mutually enjoyable interactions.<\/strong> Mutually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary Ainsworth\u2019s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the answers, she used the <em>Strange Situation<\/em> procedure to study attachment between parents and their infants (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970).\u202fIn the Strange Situation, the\u202fprimary caregiver and child (age 12-18 months) are placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had time to explore their surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The caregiver then leaves the baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, the caregiver returns to comfort their child.<\/p>\n<p>Based on how the infants\/toddlers responded to the separation and reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments: secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth &amp; Bell, 1970). A fourth style, known as disorganised attachment, was later described (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990).<\/p>\n<h3>Secure attachment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Most common type of attachment.<\/li>\n<li>Toddler prefers their parent (the attachment figure) over a stranger.<\/li>\n<li>Toddler uses the attachment figure as a secure base to explore the environment.<\/li>\n<li>Toddler seeks out parent in times of stress.<\/li>\n<li>Children are distressed when caregivers leave the room in the Strange Situation experiment but happy upon their return.<\/li>\n<li>Caregivers are sensitive and responsive to their needs.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Avoidant attachment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Child is unresponsive to the parent.<\/li>\n<li>Child does not use the parent as a secure base.<\/li>\n<li>Child does not appear to care if the parent leaves.<\/li>\n<li>Child reacts to the parent the same way they react to a stranger.<\/li>\n<li>Child is slow to show a positive reaction when the parent returns.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Resistant attachment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Children show clingy behaviour but reject attachment figure\u2019s attempts to interact.<\/li>\n<li>Children do not explore the toys in the room due to fear.<\/li>\n<li>Children become extremely disturbed and angry with the parent during separation in the Strange Situation.<\/li>\n<li>Children are difficult to comfort when the parent returns.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3>Disorganised attachment<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Children behave oddly in the Strange Situation, such as freezing, running around erratically, or trying to run away when the caregiver returns.<\/li>\n<li>Is most often seen in children who have been abused \u2013 which disrupts a child\u2019s ability to regulate their emotions (Main &amp; Solomon, 1990).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-330\" title=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph shows a person squatting down next to a small child who is standing up.\" width=\"350\" height=\"262\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1.jpeg 488w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1-300x224.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1-65x49.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1-225x168.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.12-Person-Squatting-Next-to-Kid-1-350x262.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.14. Secure attachment.<\/strong> In secure attachment, the parent provides a secure base for the toddler, allowing them to securely explore their environment.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While Ainsworth\u2019s research has found support in subsequent studies, it has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child\u2019s temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009; Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth\u2019s research (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, &amp; Morelli, 2000; van\u202fIjzendoorn\u202f&amp;\u202fSagi-Schwartz, 2008).<\/p>\n<p>The next video explains and shows the process involved with the strange situation test, originally developed by Ainsworth.<\/p>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/m_6rQk7jlrc?si=lsZLznjlvLF00f_o\">The Strange Situation | Mary Ainsworth, 1969 | Developmental Psychology (4.5 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"The Strange Situation | Mary Ainsworth, 1969 | Developmental Psychology\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/m_6rQk7jlrc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe Strange Situation | Mary Ainsworth, 1969 | Developmental Psychology\u201d video by Psychology Unlocked is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/p>\n<p>Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop?\u202fIf you place a baby in front of a mirror, they will reach out to touch their image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a toddler will recognise that the person in the mirror is them. How do we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot of paint on children\u2019s noses before putting them in front of a mirror (Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the <strong>mirror test<\/strong>, this\u202fbehaviour\u202fis demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992).<\/p>\n<p>At 18 months\u202fold\u202fthey would touch their own noses during the mirror test when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot on their faces.<\/p>\n<p>By 24\u201336 months old children can name and\/or point to themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.<\/p>\n<p>Children from 2\u20134 years old display a great increase in social\u202fbehaviour\u202fonce they have established a self-concept.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>They enjoy playing with other children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions.<\/li>\n<li>through play children practice performing gender roles (Chick,\u202fHeilman-Houser, &amp; Hunter, 2002).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little anxiety.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and carry out plans.<\/li>\n<li>When children experience success in these areas, it contributes to a positive sense of self.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves in terms of group memberships: \u201cI\u2019m a first grader!\u201d<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>School-age children compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson\u2019s task of industry versus inferiority).<\/li>\n<li>At this age, children recognise their own personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>More confident<\/li>\n<li>Do better in school,<\/li>\n<li>Act more independently,<\/li>\n<li>More willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer &amp; Fugate, 2003).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson\u2019s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is\u202ffavourable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson\u2019s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalise the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to society (Erikson, 1968).<\/p>\n<p>One behavioural aspect that contributes to children\u2019s developing sense of self-identity is play. Children spend a significant portion of their day playing;\u202fpreschoolers\u202foften spend\u202fmost\u202fof the day engaged in some sort of play activity.<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Play is an important aspect of social and cognitive development, as it makes social learning something children desire to engage in.<\/li>\n<li>Play also provides the space for children to begin practicing social skills, such as\u202fhumour, which has been found to influence peer acceptance and perceived social competence.<\/li>\n<li>It has even been argued that play is an essential element in the acquisition of language and concept meaning.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Given the integral role of play in children&#8217;s lives, it becomes evident that activities such as play are not merely for entertainment but are pivotal in the development of self-concept, motivation, learning, and the establishment of secure relationships. Through play, children not only engage in essential social and cognitive development but also explore and affirm their identities, preferences, and abilities. This exploration is crucial for fostering a positive self-concept, which in turn supports confidence, independence, and a willingness to embrace new experiences. As children navigate through various stages of development, from recognising themselves in mirrors to identifying with group memberships and evaluating their competencies, play serves as a constant, enriching backdrop that enhances their understanding of themselves and their place in the world.<\/p>\n<h1>Adolescence<\/h1>\n<h2>Physical Development<\/h2>\n<p>Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely.<\/p>\n<h2>Sexual Development<\/h2>\n<p>Several physical changes occur during puberty, specifically the maturing of the:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>adrenal glands;<\/li>\n<li>sex glands;<\/li>\n<li>primary sexual characteristics\u202f (organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus, ovaries, and testes); and<\/li>\n<li>secondary sexual characteristics\u202f (physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as\u202fdevelopment of breasts and hips,\u202fdevelopment of facial hair and a deepened voice).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>A more complete description of sexual and gender identity development is given in the chapter on Gender and Sexuality.<\/p>\n<h2>Brain Development<\/h2>\n<p>The adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty, brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage in increased risk-taking\u202fbehaviours\u202fand emotional outbursts, possibly because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing (Figure LD.14). Recall that this area is responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning, and it is still maturing into early adulthood (Casey,\u202fTottenham, Liston, &amp;\u202fDurston, 2005).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 487px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-331 size-full\" title=\"An illustration of a brain is shown with the frontal lobe labeled.\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3.jpeg\" alt=\"An illustration of a brain is shown with the frontal lobe labeled.\" width=\"487\" height=\"362\" data-popupalt-original-title=\"null\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3.jpeg 487w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3-300x223.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3-225x167.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/Figure-LD.14-Frontal-Lobe-DIagram-3-350x260.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 487px) 100vw, 487px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.15. Brain development.<\/strong> Brain growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Watch this video: <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/DHljv1t2_uk?si=qENRY9t5EQ9iUHM6\">Tricky Topics: Myelination of the Prefrontal Cortex (4 minutes)<\/a><\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Tricky Topics: Myelination of the Prefrontal Cortex\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/DHljv1t2_uk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\u201cTricky Topics: Myelination of the Prefrontal Cortex\u201d video by FirstYearPsych Dalhousie is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.<\/p>\n<h2>Cognitive Development<\/h2>\n<p>More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest that this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity; in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal operational thought. Teen thinking is also characterised by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas (Figure LD.16). In addition, it\u2019s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms.<\/p>\n<p>Cognitive empathy, also known as theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism), relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory,\u202fTomer, &amp;\u202fAharon-Peretz, 2005). Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important component of social problem-solving and conflict avoidance.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_332\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-332\" style=\"width: 350px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-332\" src=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28.png\" alt=\"Two construction workers work through a problem.\" width=\"350\" height=\"270\" srcset=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28.png 1650w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-300x232.png 300w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-1024x791.png 1024w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-768x593.png 768w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-1536x1187.png 1536w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-65x50.png 65w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-225x174.png 225w, https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/470\/2024\/08\/img-MB5_Females-Problem-Solving_Construction28-350x270.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 350px) 100vw, 350px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-332\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><strong>Figure LD.16. Problem solving.<\/strong> More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some researchers suggest that this is due to increases in processing speed and efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental capacity; in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985).<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2>Psychosocial Development<\/h2>\n<p>Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson\u2019s view, an adolescent\u2019s main questions are \u201cWho am I?\u201d and \u201cWho do I want to be?\u201d Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect of them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents\u2019 lives.<\/p>\n<p>As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, &amp;\u202fCrouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair,\u202fLippman, &amp; Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school\u202fbehaviour\u202fproblems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005). It appears that most teens don\u2019t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg &amp; Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos\u202f&amp; Almeida, 1992).<\/p>\n<p>There is emerging research on the adolescent brain. Galvan, Hare, Voss, Glover, and Casey (2007) examined its role in risk-taking behaviour. They used fMRI to assess the readings\u2019 relationship to risk-taking, risk perception, and impulsivity. The researchers found that there was no correlation between brain activity in the neural reward centre and impulsivity or risk perception. However, activity in that part of the brain was correlated with taking risks. In other words, risk-taking adolescents experienced brain activity in the reward centre. The idea, however, that adolescents are more impulsive than other demographics was challenged in their research, which included children and adults.<\/p>\n<h1>Emerging Adult (Ages 18 to 29)<\/h1>\n<p>Let&#8217;s now consider the relatively new-to-psychology concept of &#8220;emerging adulthood&#8221;. This developmental stage covers psychological, social, and spiritual development between ages 18 and 29. Jeffrey Arnett, a psychology researcher, proposed this distinct phase in human development (Arnett, 2000). The emergence of this developmental stage can be attributed to various societal shifts, such as later ages of marriage and parenthood and extended periods spent in higher education (Arnett, 2000). Our understanding of emerging adulthood and its impact on later life stages is still developing.<\/p>\n<p>This Emerging Adult stage acts as a developmental crucible where patterns are formed that can shape a person&#8217;s entire life path. It acts as a developmental crucible where patterns are formed that can shape a person&#8217;s entire life trajectory (Arnett, 2000). Behaviours, values, relationships, and more are moulded during this time.<\/p>\n<p>There are five primary characteristics that define this developmental stage: identity exploration, instability, self-focus, feeling &#8216;in-between&#8217;, and possibilities. Identity exploration stands at the centre, with the other four elements extending from it. This exploration stage involves emerging adults navigating new identities around love, work, and worldview, influencing their long-term life directions and commitments (Arnett, 2000).<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li><strong>Identity Exploration:<\/strong> This is when young adults explore different aspects of who they are, trying out various roles, beliefs, and career paths to find what fits them best. It&#8217;s a time of questioning and discovering oneself in areas like love, work, and personal beliefs.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Instability: <\/strong>This refers to the changes and uncertainties in life during emerging adulthood, such as moving frequently, changing jobs, or experiencing shifts in relationships. It&#8217;s a period marked by transitions and a lack of permanence in various aspects of life.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Self-focus:<\/strong> During this stage, individuals focus more on themselves as they make decisions that will shape their future. It&#8217;s a time of independence, where there&#8217;s less concern about others&#8217; expectations and more emphasis on personal growth and self-discovery.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Feeling &#8216;In-Between&#8217;:<\/strong> This is the sensation of being caught between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood. Emerging adults often feel they are no longer teenagers but not yet fully adults, navigating a middle ground as they work towards adult responsibilities and independence.<\/li>\n<li><strong>Possibilities:<\/strong> This characteristic highlights the optimism and sense of opportunity prevalent in emerging adulthood. It&#8217;s a time when individuals feel that many paths are open to them, and they can envision numerous potential futures, filled with hope for achieving their dreams.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>In conclusion, emerging adulthood is a relatively modern societal phenomenon in response to delaying parenthood and extended years in higher education. Arnett argues that emerging adulthood is an integral and unique phase in human development. It is a period where lifelong patterns are set, identities are explored, and significant transitions are made, ultimately shaping an individual&#8217;s future life trajectory (Arnett, 2000). While the emerging adult stage is useful, it is problematic that it is built upon young adults living in the gap before having a family (individualistic and exclusionary of people who raise children in their early 20s) and the requirement of staying in higher education (elitist and expensive) for a longer period.<\/p>\n<h1>Technology\u2019s Impact on the Development of Children and Youth<\/h1>\n<p>The impact of technology on the development of children and youth is significant, touching on various aspects of their lives. This summary provides a general overview of how television, cell phones, social media, and video games affect young people.<\/p>\n<h2>Television<\/h2>\n<p>Television has both positive and negative effects on children. Educational programs, like &#8220;Sesame Street&#8221;, can promote learning and improve academic skills (Linebarger &amp; Walker, 2005). However, watching too much TV can cut into reading time, which leads to lower reading scores and attention problems in children (Williams, 1986). This means that when children spend a lot of time watching TV, they might not do as well in school or might have trouble focusing. Also, watching violent TV shows is linked to an increase in aggressive behaviours under some circumstances (Anderson et al., 2001).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/vs-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.9: Deep Dive &#8211; TV\u2019s Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\n<h2>Cell Phones<\/h2>\n<p>Cell Phones are everywhere and are used by children and teenagers for talking, texting, and going online. They can be useful for staying in touch with friends and family and for learning. But, using cell phones too much can distract users from homework and lead to stress (Lepp et al., 2015). For young people who feel left out or different, cell phones can offer support through social networks. However, since cell phones are a major way that children and youth access social media, these devices can also be a way for people who bully to target young phone users (Hinduja &amp; Patchin, 2010).<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/cell-phones-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.10: Deep Dive &#8211; Cell Phones\u2019 Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\n<h2>Social Media<\/h2>\n<p>Social Media platforms like Instagram and Snapchat allow children and teenagers to express themselves, share photos, and connect with friends. These platforms can be especially important for young people who feel marginalised, giving them a space to find others with similar experiences (Craig &amp; McInroy, 2014). But, spending a lot of time on social media is linked to feeling anxious, depressed, and lonely (Twenge et al., 2018). This is because constant comparison with others online can make young people feel bad about themselves.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/social-medias-impact-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.11: Deep Dive &#8211; Social Media&#8217;s Impact on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\n<h2>Video Games<\/h2>\n<p>Video Games can be fun and can also teach problem-solving skills. However, games with violent content might make children more likely to act aggressively (Anderson et al., 2010). The world of video games often lacks diversity, which means that not all children see themselves represented in the games they play. This can make some feel left out or stereotyped (Williams et al., 2009). Games that include different kinds of characters and stories can help make gaming a more positive experience for everyone.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox sup\"><a href=\"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdisupplement\/chapter\/the-impact-of-video-game-on-children-and-youth\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Supplement LD.12: Deep Dive &#8211; The Impact of Video Game on Children and Youth [New Tab]<\/a><\/div>\n<p>In summary, technology can help children learn and stay connected, but it also has downsides like distraction, stress, and exposure to harmful content. It&#8217;s important for children to have a balanced approach to using technology. This means enjoying the benefits of technology while also being aware of the risks and knowing how to manage them. Parents, teachers, and caregivers can help by setting limits on screen time, talking about what children are watching or playing, and encouraging them to spend time offline too.<\/p>\n<h1>When Harm Impacts Healthy Development: The Impact of the Indian Residential School System<\/h1>\n<div class=\"textbox shaded\">\n<p><strong>Content Disclosure:<\/strong> This section contains discussions on the psychological and physiological impacts of stress, with a focus on the historical trauma experienced by Indigenous communities, particularly related to Indian Residential Schools. It includes descriptions of trauma, cultural genocide, and abuse, which may be distressing or triggering for some readers. The content is presented with a trauma-informed approach and includes both scientific terminology and plain language explanations. Please consider your comfort level with these topics before reading.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<p>Childhood and adolescence are life stages pivotal to a person\u2019s developmental maturation (Cabral &amp; Patel, 2020; Cassidy &amp; Shaver, 2018; White et al., 2017). Experiences such as adversity, loss, trauma, and\/or maltreatment have been linked to feelings of anxiety and depression (Hovens et al., 2015; Jurena et al., 2020) as well as issues with attachment in older adult relationships (Cohen et al., 2012; Lo et al., 2017), issues in development (Sege et al., 2017), and other health problems (Asselmann et al., 2018; Nelson et al., 2020; Rojo-Wissar et al., 2021).<\/p>\n<p>Since confederation (1867), the Canadian federal government has continued to forcefully attempt total assimilation of Indigenous Peoples into \u201cEuro-Canadian culture and society\u201d (Truth and Reconciliation Commission [TRC], 2015). One of the ways in which the government attempted to do this was through the Indian Residential School (IRS) system (TRC, 2015). The IRS system in Canada has often been referred to as a series of concentration camps (TRC, 2015) or \u201cboarding schools\u201dused to house Indigenous children. Unlawful and immoral acts perpetuated in the IRSs have been termed \u201ccultural genocide\u201d at the international level (TRC, 2015; United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples [UNDRIP], 2007).<\/p>\n<h2>Impact on Attachment<\/h2>\n<p>From 1876 to 1996, the Canadian government took hundreds of thousands of Indigenous children, some as young as 4, from their families and placed them in residential schools (IRSs) (TRC, 2015). If Indigenous parents or family members tried to stop the police from taking their children, they could be jailed or even killed (Bombay et al., 2014ab; Facing History and Ourselves, 2021; TRC, 2015). At these schools, children were often forced to change their appearance drastically and were not allowed to use their names or speak their native languages. Instead, they were given numbers and punished if they spoke their own language, which for many was the only language they knew (TRC, 2015). Being separated from family under such stressful conditions can cause long-term health issues. Research shows that short-term separations can harm health later in life (R\u00e4ikk\u00f6nen et al., 2011), and longer separations increase the risk of depression (Bohman et al., 2017; Coffino, 2009) and anxiety (Bryant et al., 2017; L\u00e4hdepuro et al., 2019).<\/p>\n<h2>Intergenerational Impacts<\/h2>\n<p>Federal, institutional and academic inquiries into the IRS system continue to highlight various atrocities that many IRS Survivors experienced, such as spiritual, verbal, emotional, physical and sexual assault, abuse and violence (TRC, 2015). Trauma of this magnitude continues to impact not only the Survivors, but their children, grandchildren, and other relatives (Bombay et al., 2014ab; Bombay et al., 2014ab; Lehrner &amp; Yehuda, 2018). For example, Indigenous children of IRS Survivors are more likely to have poor psychological health because of the IRS impacts on their parents\u2019 psychosocial functioning and health (Bombay et al., 2011; 2014ab; 2018; Elias et al., 2012).<\/p>\n<h2>Biopsychosocial Framework<\/h2>\n<p>The Biopsychosocial Framework shows how our health is influenced by a mix of biological, psychological, and social factors. It&#8217;s a tool that helps health professionals understand why certain physical or mental health problems happen (Karunamuni et al., 2020). This approach reveals that the education provided by many residential schools was substandard, with poor teaching, inadequate resources, and a high level of racism (Barnes &amp; Josefowitz, 2019; TRC, 2015). As a result, many survivors left school without the necessary academic skills, such as language proficiency, and were often unprepared for work as adults (Miller, 1996; TRC, 2015; Barnes et al., 2006). The deep trauma from their experiences at these schools has led many survivors to face challenges with their mental and physical health, their ability to connect with Indigenous cultural practices and communities, and their overall well-being (Barnes &amp; Josefowitz, 2019; Ogle et al., 2013; Miller, 1996; TRC, 2015; Vachon et al., 2015).<\/p>\n<p>You can read more about the effects of trauma and stress in the chapter on Well-being.<\/p>\n<h2>Cultural Resilience<\/h2>\n<p>While Indigenous Peoples in Canada continue to face premeditated colonial assimilation tactics, such as the child welfare crisis or \u201cmodern day IRS system\u201d (Ma et al., 2019; McMillan, 2021; Mitchell, 2019), resilience among Indigenous populations in Canada continues to be researched (Bombay et al., 2010; 2011; Paul et al., 2022). To date, various facets of cultural identity among Indigenous populations in Canada, such as the sense of belonging to a cultural community, provide protection against the negative effects of colonization (Bombay et al., 2014ab; First Nations Health Authority, 2019; Paul et al., 2022). While it has been suggested that Indigenous culture helps to improve and maintain good health and happiness for Indigenous individuals, continued research is needed to better understand precisely how these cultural wisdoms and practices can be used in care models that are most suitable for and respectful of Indigenous People.<\/p>\n<h1>Summary<\/h1>\n<p>In our exploration of &#8220;Ages, Stages, and Milestones of Development&#8221;, we have studied human growth from the earliest moments of conception to the phase of emerging adulthood. This section has highlighted the biological, cognitive, and psychosocial transformations that occur, each stage building upon the last to shape the complex individuals we become. By examining attachment, self-concept, and the unique challenges of adolescence, we&#8217;ve gained a holistic understanding of the developmental process. It is also important to be mindful of how technologies such as TV, cell phones, social media, and video games can benefit and interfere\u00a0 with healthy development.<\/p>\n<p>The profound impact of the Indian Residential School system on Indigenous communities underscores the importance of understanding how adverse experiences shape developmental pathways. Childhood and adolescence are critical stages for building healthy attachments and self-concepts, but trauma and loss can significantly hinder this process.<\/p>\n<p>Our lifespan involves many developmental pathways, from prenatal factors to societal impacts, that contribute to our physical, emotional, mental, social, and spiritual growth. Rather than being solely negative influences in our lives, developmental challenges and setbacks can inspire us to look for solutions, build resilience, and open us up to new learning experiences, enriching our journey through life&#8217;s varied stages and seasons.<\/p>\n<h1>Chapter Conclusion<\/h1>\n<p>In this chapter, we explored lifespan developmental science, examining how individuals grow and change from birth to old age. We started by reviewing key research methods in developmental psychology, including naturalistic observation, case studies, and controlled experiments. These methods help us understand human development patterns and provide evidence-based insights into how people evolve over time.<\/p>\n<p>We then looked at major debates and theories in human development, discussing whether development is continuous or occurs in distinct stages and the roles of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping individuals. We introduced the concept of normal development, encouraging consideration of the wide range of human growth and influencing factors.<\/p>\n<p>Significant Big Picture models of development include the Indigenous Connectedness Framework and Bronfenbrenner&#8217;s Ecological Systems Theory. These theories highlight the role of social and environmental contexts, offering a holistic view of individual and community interconnectedness.<\/p>\n<p>In this chapter we also discussed several focused perspectives on lifespan development. In particular, the social construction of cognition (Vygotsky) and stages of psychosocial (Erikson), cognitive (Piaget), and moral development (Kohlberg and Gilligan) showing how our thinking, social relationships, and moral reasoning change over time. We also examined theories on Racial, Feminist, and Spiritual identity formation as well as\u00a0 biological development stages from prenatal growth to adulthood, emphasising genetics and environmental impacts on growth. We also discussed the factors that influence the development of attachment styles and self-concept.<\/p>\n<p>Next we looked at the impact of technologies like television, cell phones, social media, and video games. We finished this chapter with a critical discussion of the impact of catastrophic harms on the development of survivors of the Indian Residential School system and the attempted cultural genocide of Indigenous Peoples in Canada.<\/p>\n<p>Concluding the chapter, we gained a deep appreciation for the complexity and diversity of human development. This journey through life&#8217;s stages, supported by scientific research and theoretical frameworks, broadens our understanding of the human experience. This chapter has laid the foundation of the science of developmental psychology and given us a deep understanding of the nature of human growth. Along the way we have learned the importance of practicing a holistic, interrelated, interdependent, and inclusive approach to studying the human lifespan.<\/p>\n<h1>Story Part 2 &#8211; Returning to the Child Who Said &#8220;Sky&#8221;<\/h1>\n<p>As we conclude this chapter I want to return to the story in the opening comic. I think it gives us more than just an anecdote; it is a metaphor for the entire field of developmental psychology. Just as the child&#8217;s answer, &#8220;sky&#8221;, opened a window into their stage of cognitive development, each theory and research method we explored offers insights into the vast \u201csky\u201d of human growth and change. From the naturalistic observations that capture behaviour in its most genuine form to the controlled experiments that discover the important details of development, we&#8217;ve seen the many ways in which individuals evolve from infancy through to old age.<\/p>\n<p>As we close this chapter, inspired by the child&#8217;s profound yet simple answer, we&#8217;re reminded of the importance of approaching the study of lifespan development with openness, curiosity, and a willingness to be surprised. The field invites us to look beyond our preconceptions and biases, to question the &#8216;errors&#8217; and &#8216;misunderstandings&#8217; not just in others but within ourselves, and to embrace the vastness of the human experience with the same wonder and wisdom with which a child sees the sky. This chapter has laid a foundation not just for academic inquiry but for a lifelong journey of discovery about how we grow, adapt, and thrive throughout our lives, encouraging us to keep looking up, always ready to be amazed by the endless possibilities of development. I hope this exploration into lifespan development has kindled in you a curiosity to view your own \u201cerrors\u201d as stepping stones and to pursue your personal growth with the same passion that has fueled my career in this fascinating field.<\/p>\n<h1>Image Attributions<\/h1>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.8. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.8 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a><\/span>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.9. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.7<\/span> as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>. and Figure LD.6 (b)\u00a0as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/caul-cbua.pressbooks.pub\/intropsychneuro\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Introduction to Psychology &amp; Neuroscience (2nd Edition)<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License.<\/a><\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.10. <\/strong>Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/bongbabyhousevn-15950077\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7186087\">T\u00fa Nguy\u1ec5n<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7186087\">Pixabay<\/a>,\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/b13923790-23007053\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=6578335\">b13923790<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=6578335\">Pixabay,<\/a>\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/alisadyson-25286447\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7223110\">Alisa Dyson<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=7223110\">Pixabay<\/a> and\u00a0Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/hansdakfamilyministry-11855894\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4102042\">hansdakfamilyministry<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\/?utm_source=link-attribution&amp;utm_medium=referral&amp;utm_campaign=image&amp;utm_content=4102042\">Pixabay<\/a> are\u00a0used under the <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/service\/license-summary\/\">Pixabay Content License<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.11. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.11 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.12. <\/strong>Soccer player by Marie Bartlett is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 4.0 license<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.13. <\/strong>utually enjoyable interactions promote the parent-infant bond. Image by <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/users\/6205857\/?tab=photos&amp;order=latest&amp;pagi=1\">balouriarajesh<\/a> from <a href=\"https:\/\/pixabay.com\/\">Pixabay<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.14. <\/strong>Figure 9.14 by Kerry Ceszyk as found in <a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a> is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.15. <\/strong><span class=\"os-title-label\">Figure\u00a0<\/span><span class=\"os-number\">9.16 as found in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/openstax.org\/books\/psychology-2e\/pages\/1-introduction\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Psychology 2e by OpenStax<\/a>\u00a0is licensed under a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY 4.0 License<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n<p><strong>Figure LD.16. <\/strong>Problem solving by Marie Bartlett is licensed under a <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 4.0 license<\/a>.<\/p>\n<div class=\"glossary\"><span class=\"screen-reader-text\" id=\"definition\">definition<\/span><template id=\"term_333_595\"><div class=\"glossary__definition\" role=\"dialog\" data-id=\"term_333_595\"><div tabindex=\"-1\"><p>To calculate this time, we used a reading speed of 150 words per minute and then added extra time to account for images and videos. This is just to give you a rough idea of the length of the chapter section. How long it will take you to engage with this chapter will vary greatly depending on all sorts of things (the complexity of the content, your ability to focus, etc).<\/p>\n<\/div><button><span aria-hidden=\"true\">&times;<\/span><span class=\"screen-reader-text\">Close definition<\/span><\/button><\/div><\/template><\/div>","protected":false},"author":127,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":["jessica-motherwell-mcfarlane"],"pb_section_license":"cc-by-nc-sa"},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[61],"license":[57],"class_list":["post-333","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry","contributor-jessica-motherwell-mcfarlane","license-cc-by-nc-sa"],"part":310,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/333","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/127"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/333\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1119,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/333\/revisions\/1119"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/310"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/333\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=333"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=333"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=333"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/opentextbc.ca\/psychologymtdi\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=333"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}