Approximate reading time: 15 minutes

Social Learning Theory

Do you remember Albert Bandura from the Psychological Science chapter? He’s the researcher who had children watch others act aggressively toward a doll (the BoBo doll), and then observed those children’s behaviours with the same doll. Children who watched aggressive acts then engaged in aggression with the doll. Essentially, a behaviour was modeled and then they displayed the behaviour.

We receive much of our information about gender from models in our environment (think about all the factors we just learned about: parents, media, school, peers). If a little girl is playing with a truck and looks over and sees three girls playing with dolls, she may put the truck down and play with the dolls. If a boy sees his dad always doing lawn work, he may immediately try to mimic this. Here is the interesting part: modeling doesn’t just stop after the immediate moment is over. The more we see it, the more it becomes a part of our socialisation. We begin to learn rules of how we are to act and what behaviour is accepted and desired by others, what is not, etc. Then we engage in those behaviours, becoming models for others as well! Now, some theories challenge the idea of modeling; however, further research has indicated that modeling is essential in development. Yet, how strictly or specifically the behaviour being modeled adheres to gender norms is also significant (Perry & Bussey, 1979). Other theories include modeling in their explanations but with certain conditions or exceptions. Kohlberg is one of those theorists whom we will learn about later.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social Cognitive Theory combines elements of social learning and cognitive theories to explain gender development. To explain this, social cognitive theory suggests that one has enactive experiences (this is essentially when a person receives reactions to gendered behaviour), direct instruction (this is when someone is taught knowledge of expected gendered behaviour), and modeling (this is when others show someone gendered behaviour and expectations). For instance, a girl might stop playing with a truck if she’s laughed at, learning that this isn’t considered typical for her gender. Similarly, children are often explicitly told what behaviours are suitable for boys or girls. This theory highlights that both our biology and our environment, along with their interactions, play a role in how we develop our gender identity throughout our lives. This approach differs significantly from earlier theories, like psychodynamic theories, by considering gender development as a lifelong process influenced by a combination of social and biological factors.

Cognitive Theories

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

Lawrence Kohlberg originated the first cognitive developmental theory. He theorised that children actively seek out information about their environment. This is important because it places children as active agents in their socialisation. According to cognitive developmental theory, a major component of gender socialization occurs when children recognise that gender is constant and does not change; this is referred to as “gender constancy”. Kohlberg indicated that children choose various behaviours that align with their gender and match cultural stereotypes and expectations. Gender constancy includes multiple parts. A child: (1) must be able to label their own identity, which is known as gender identity; (2) recognise that gender remains constant over time, which is gender stability; and (3) apply these skills across settings, which is gender consistency. Gender identity appears to be established by around age three and gender constancy appears to be established somewhere between the ages of five and seven. Although Kohlberg’s theory captures important aspects, it fails to recognize things such as the ways in which gender identity regulates gender conduct and the extent to which one adheres to gender roles throughout their life (Bussey, 2014).

Although Kohlberg indicated that modeling was important and relevant, he theorised that it was only relevant once gender constancy was achieved. He theorised that constancy happens first, which then allows for modeling to occur later (although the opposite is considered true in social cognitive theory). The problem with his theory is that children begin to recognise gender and model gender behaviours before they have cognitive capacities for gender constancy (remember what we learned about how infants show gender-based knowledge?!).

Gender Schema Theory

Gender schema theory combines ideas from cognitive psychology and social learning. It suggests that we all have mental scripts, called schemas, that guide our understanding of gender. These schemas act as mental shortcuts, guiding our gender-based behaviour.

Children develop these gender schemas based on what they learn and observe around them. For example, a child might learn that boys play with trucks and girls play with dolls. These ideas then influence their choices and actions.

Sandra Bem, a prominent researcher in this field, described gender schemas as including attributes like behaviours, personality traits, and appearance that are typically associated with females or males. These schemas often rely on stereotypes, leading us to accept behaviours that match these stereotypes and question those that don’t.

• Superordinate Schemas: These are broad, general ideas about what males and females are typically like. For example, a superordinate schema might be the belief that males are strong and enjoy sports or females are nurturing and good at caregiving. This type of schema shapes our expectations about gender roles in society.
• Own-Sex Schemas: These are more personal and relate to how individuals see themselves in relation to their gender. For instance, a boy might have an own-sex schema that includes, “I am a boy, so I should like playing football and be tough”. This schema influences how he perceives himself and his role within the gender he identifies with.

Think of gender schemas as a set of rules that make it quicker for us to decide how to act in gender-related situations. For instance, if a boy believes only boys should play with trucks, he’ll likely choose to play with a truck when given one.

Children develop these schemas in stages. Initially, they strictly categorize things as “for boys” or “for girls.” Around ages five to seven, they start to see these categories as more rigid. As they grow older, they begin to understand that these rules aren’t always fixed and can be more flexible.

As society increasingly acknowledges and accepts non-binary genders, new stereotypes and cognitive shortcuts about non-binary behaviours may emerge. These could be assumptions about non-binary appearance, personality traits, interests, or behaviours. For instance, there might be an expectation that non-binary individuals should look androgynous or have specific interests that differ from traditional gender norms.

It’s crucial to remember, however, that while stereotypes and cognitive shortcuts simplify complex social information, they can often be too simplistic and not reflective of individual diversity. They can lead to misunderstandings or biases against people who don’t conform to these generalised expectations. As society’s understanding of gender continues to evolve, it’s crucial to be aware of these tendencies and strive for a more individualised understanding of each person’s unique identity.

In summary, gender schema theory helps us to understand how children learn and apply societal norms about gender, and influences their behaviour from a young age.

Genetics

We can be genetically predisposed to many things, such as mental illness, cancer, or heart conditions. It is theorised that we also are predisposed to gendered behaviour and identification. This theory is most obvious when individuals are gender non-conforming or transgender (predisposed to a gender that does not align with biological sex). Research has actually revealed initial evidence that gender involves some degree of genetic predisposition. Specifically, twin studies have shown that nonconforming gender traits are linked to genetic gender predispositions. More specifically, when one twin is transgender, it is more likely that the other twin is transgender as well. This phenomenon is not evidenced in fraternal twins or non-twin siblings to the same degree (Bevan, 2017).

Genetic gender predisposition theorists further reference case studies in which males with damaged genitalia undergo plastic surgery as infants to modify their genitalia to be more female aligned. These infants are then raised as girls, but often seek out transitioning back to being boys or become gender-nonconforming (Bevan, 2017).

Case Study – Tad’s Journey in Gender Socialization

Background

Tad, a 10-year-old child, lives in a culturally diverse urban neighborhood. Tad’s parents encourage exploration and self-expression, which has led Tad to show interest in activities traditionally not associated with their biological sex.

Observations

At home

Tad’s parents provide a variety of toys and experiences, from sports equipment to cooking sets, without adhering to gender stereotypes.

At school

Tad plays football with boys and also participates in the drama club with girls.

Peer Interactions

Tad has a mixed group of friends and engages in diverse interests, from video games to fashion.

Media Influence

Tad enjoys TV shows and movies featuring non-traditional gender roles.

Application of Theories

Social Learning Theory

Tad learns gender roles through observation and imitation. Tad’s interest in both football and drama reflects the diverse influences in their environment. For example, Tad might have seen a male family member cooking or a female teacher who is passionate about sports, leading Tad to feel comfortable engaging in these activities.

Social Cognitive Theory

Tad’s experiences are shaped by reactions from others (enactive experiences), such as praise from teachers for playing football, which challenges traditional gender norms. Tad also learns through direct instruction, as their parents avoid gendered language and encourage a variety of interests. Tad models behavior after an older sibling who enjoys both basketball and ballet, showing a mix of traditionally masculine and feminine activities.

Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

Tad recognizes their gender as a constant trait but chooses activities based on personal interests, not gender norms. This indicates that Tad has reached a level of gender constancy but does not conform strictly to traditional gender roles.

Gender Schema Theory

Tad has developed a personal gender schema that is flexible and does not strictly follow traditional norms. This schema influences Tad’s choices, allowing them to enjoy a range of activities without being confined by gender stereotypes.

Genetic-based Theories

While these theories might suggest some of Tad’s interests are innate, they cannot fully explain Tad’s wide range of interests that cross traditional gender boundaries.