Chapter 17. Well-Being
WB.13: Deep Dive – We Need to Use a Cultural Lens: Happiness and Stress
Approximate reading time: 10 minutes
When we study happiness and stress in psychology, it’s important to think about the role of culture. We will begin by exploring how different cultures, especially those focused on community (collectivistic) and those that value individuality (individualistic), have different understanding and experiences of happiness and stress. By keeping cultural perspectives in mind, we gain a more complete and accurate understanding of happiness and stress, grounded in evidence-based research, that respects and reflects the diversity of human experience.
In both collectivistic and individualistic cultures, the sources and perceptions of happiness and stress significantly differ, reflecting their core values. Collectivistic cultures find happiness in social engagement and community activities, where prosocial behavior and cooperation are essential for communal well-being, emphasising social harmony and group goals (Triandis, 2001; Arends-Tóth & Vijver, 2009; Shin et al., 2021). Stress in these cultures often arises from disruptions in social harmony, such as family conflicts or community issues (Chiu & Kosinski, 1995; Ben–Ari & Lavee, 2004; Sikora, 2020).
Conversely, individualistic cultures associate happiness with personal achievements and self-expression, where personal success and self-esteem are paramount (Uchida, Kitayama, & Norasakkunkit, 2004; Uchida & Ogihara, 2012). However, this focus on the self can sometimes paradoxically reduce overall well-being, as the intense pursuit of personal happiness may lead to feelings of isolation or dissatisfaction (Ford et al., 2015; Boehm, Lyubomirsky, & Sheldon, 2011). Stress in these societies is frequently linked to an individual’s personal challenges, such as not meeting their career goals or feeling they have underachieved (Cheng & Kwan, 2008; Chiao et al., 2009; Knyazev et al., 2017). This contrast underscores how cultural values shape the experiences and management of happiness and stress, highlighting the importance of considering cultural contexts in psychological research and practice.
Psychological researchers have validated the differences between collectivistic and individualistic cultures in terms of values, behaviours, and activities. Table SUP WB.4 illustrates different approaches to life experiences that are characteristic of these two distinct cultural perspectives.
| Collectivistic Cultures | Individualistic Cultures | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perceived Obligation and Behavioural Intention | Collectivist societies have a favourable attitude towards sharing others’ burdens and troubles, reflecting a communal sense of responsibility. For example, in a collectivist society, if someone in the community faces hardship, others will feel a strong sense of duty to help, for example, neighbours coming together to support a family after a house fire. | Individualist societies show a strong link between personal obligation and behavioural intention, emphasizing personal responsibility and choice. For example, in an individualist society, a person might decide to volunteer at a shelter based on personal values, seeing it as a personal choice rather than a communal obligation. | (Hui, 1988) |
| Activities Leading to Happiness | In collectivistic cultures, happiness is derived from socially engaged activities, group-oriented success, and prosocial interactions. For example, in a collectivist culture, the success of a group project s at work or a family reunion might be sources of happiness. | Activities that lead to happiness in individualistic cultures focus on individual success. For example, in an individualistic culture, personal achievements like getting a degree or winning a competition are seen as key happiness drivers. | (Shin et al., 2021; Suh & Oishi, 2002) |
| Stress Interpretation and Handling | Collectivist societies like China and Japan handle work-related stress differently, emphasising communal values and collective coping mechanisms. For example, in a collectivist workplace in Japan, employees might deal with stress by organizing group activities or discussions to find solutions together. | Individualist societies interpret and handle work-related stress based on personal values and attitudes, focusing on individual coping strategies. For example, in an individualist setting, an American worker might handle stress by seeking personal counseling or focusing on individual stress-relief activities like jogging or meditation. | (Chiu & Kosinski, 1995) |
| Values | Collectivistic cultures prioritise values such as social harmony, shared goals, and humanitarianism, emphasising group over individual goals. For example, a collectivist culture might prioritise family gatherings and community events, emphasising the importance of being together and working towards common goals. | In individualistic cultures, values centre on self-reliance, personal achievement, self-esteem, and self-consistency. For example, in an individualistic culture, a person might focus on personal goals like getting a promotion at work or achieving a personal best in a marathon, emphasising self-improvement. | (Lu, Gilmour, & Kao, 2001; Suh & Oishi, 2002; Triandis, 2001) |
| Behaviors | Collectivistic cultures emphasise relationship harmony and prefer low arousal states for happiness, adopting a context-focused approach to life. For example, in a collectivist culture, people might prefer a quiet family dinner or a community festival as sources of happiness, focusing on relationships and context. | Individualistic cultures focus on personal goals and prefer high arousal states for happiness, with a content-focused approach to life. For example, in an individualistic culture, people might seek happiness in personal achievements like buying a dream car or traveling solo, focusing on personal fulfillment. | (Triandis, 2004; Uchida & Ogihara, 2012) |
| Achievement | Collectivistic cultures place less emphasis on personal achievement, focusing more on group success. For example, in a collectivist culture, a community working together to build a park would be seen as an achievement, valuing the group’s success over individual contributions. | Personal achievement and success are key to happiness in individualistic cultures. For example, in an individualistic culture, personal achievements like starting a successful business or writing a best-selling book are highly valued. | (Suh & Oishi, 2002; Tafarodi & Smith, 2001) |
| Social Harmony | Social harmony and group well-being are highly emphasised in collectivistic cultures. For example, in a collectivist society, maintaining peace and agreement within a family or community group, even if it means compromising personal desires, is highly valued. | Individualistic cultures place less emphasis on social harmony, focusing more on individual success. For example, in an individualistic society, personal beliefs and goals might be prioritised, even if they conflict with the group’s views, placing less emphasis on overall harmony. | (Uchida & Kitayama, 2009) |
| Transcendence | In collectivistic cultures, happiness is often seen in transcendental reappraisal and social harmony. For example, in a collectivist culture, finding happiness might involve community rituals or traditions that emphasise social harmony and a broader understanding of life. | Transcendental reappraisal has less focus placed on it in individualistic cultures. For example, in an individualistic culture, personal spiritual or philosophical journeys that focus on individual understanding and fulfillment might be more common. | (Uchida & Kitayama, 2009) |
The “pursuit” of happiness?
The term ‘pursuit of happiness’ suggests how some people with individualistic values think about happiness. They can often believe that happiness is something they need to chase after or work hard to get. They think being free, showing who they really are, and achieving their goals will make them happy. But this idea also means that happiness is something you have to chase, and you might not always catch it.
In other parts of the world, like in Asia, Africa, Latin America and in Indigenous cultures, people see happiness differently. For these collectivistic cultures, happiness isn’t really about chasing after things. Instead, it’s about how people feel about their life as it is. They find happiness in living in the moment and being part of their community. It’s not about doing specific things to be happy; it’s more about feeling content with where you are and who you’re with.
A Blending of Approaches and Values: Happiness and Stress
When people move between cultures or grow up with two different cultural backgrounds, they often face unique challenges related to happiness and stress. For instance, someone might move from a country where community and family are everything, to a place where individual success and independence are more valued. This shift can be stressful as they try to fit into the new culture while still holding onto their original values. Similarly, children from mixed-culture families might get mixed messages about what’s important in life. One part of the family might emphasise working together and respecting elders, while the other focuses on making your own choices and achieving personal goals. This can make it tricky for them to figure out where they fit in, affecting their sense of happiness and how they handle stress. This blending of cultures shows how our backgrounds influence our feelings and experiences in complex ways.
Reassessing Happiness and Stress: A Culture-informed Approach
Understanding happiness and stress requires considering the unique insights from both individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Psychology has often leaned towards studying individualistic societies, sometimes missing the full picture by not equally considering collectivistic viewpoints. This oversight can lead to a one-sided understanding of these complex emotions. Recognizing the value of diverse cultural perspectives is key to a more complete and inclusive study of psychological well-being. Embracing this broader view ensures our research reflects the rich variety of human experiences, as highlighted by Triandis and colleagues (1988).
The cultural context is not just a background factor but a pivotal element in our understanding of happiness and stress. The distinction between collectivistic and individualistic orientations is more than a mere classification; it fundamentally shapes the experiences and strategies related to well-being. Recognizing this, we move towards a more inclusive and accurate understanding of psychological health, one that respects the full spectrum of human diversity in experiencing and managing happiness and stress.
Image Attributions
Figure SUP WB.4. A child chases a ball by Rachel Lu is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA license.
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