Chapter 14. Personality

Chapter Resources

Amelia Liangzi Shi

Key Takeaways

Key Takeaways

  1. The word “personality” comes from the Latin word “persona,” which means a mask worn by actors. It helps us predict how people might think, feel, and act.
  2. Personality has been studied for over 2,000 years, starting with Hippocrates and his theory of temperaments.
  3. Phrenology and somatology were early attempts to link personality to physical features, but they have been discredited.
  4. Freud’s psychodynamic theory focused on unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. He introduced the id, ego, and superego as components of personality. Defence mechanisms, like repression and displacement, help cope with conflicts among these components.
  5. Freud’s psychosexual stages describe how personality develops through different pleasure-focused body parts.
  6. Adler focused on the striving for success and superiority as the main motivation of behaviour.
  7. Jung introduced the collective unconscious and archetypes.
  8. Horney balanced Freudian theories regarding women and emphasised the desire for security.
  9. Erikson extended Freud’s stages, emphasising social relationships.
  10. Rogers focused on self-concept, including the ideal and real self. Achieving consistency between these selves leads to congruence. Unconditional positive regard, or unconditional love, helps individuals develop a healthy self-concept.
  11. Psychodynamic and humanistic approaches, while valuable in therapy, are harder to test and prove scientifically. The lack of falsifiability makes it challenging to measure and confirm their assumptions.
  12. Behaviourism studies what people do, not hidden thoughts. Behaviourists like Skinner think the way we act is learned from what happens around us, not something we’re born with.
  13. According to Bandura, we learn by watching others, and if we see them rewarded, we might copy their actions. Self-efficacy also affects how we approach challenges and reach goals.
  14. According to Rotter, some people believe they control their lives (internal locus), while others think their lives are controlled by luck or others (external locus).
  15. According to Mischel, it’s not just your personality that matters, but also the situations you’re in, and that’s what makes people act the same way in similar situations. Mischel’s marshmallow test shows that children who wait for a bigger reward do better later in life, proving that self-control matters.
  16. Personality traits reflect consistent patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Traits like extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness represent dimensions on which people differ.
  17. Personality traits are seen as continuous distributions, not distinct types. For example, introverts and extraverts are not two completely different types but exist along a continuum.
  18. Allport categorised traits into cardinal, central, and secondary traits.
  19. Cattell identified 16 factors of personality, like warmth, reasoning, and emotional stability, measured on a continuum.
  20. The Eysencks proposed two dimensions, extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability, with a third added later. These dimensions are related to fundamental reward and avoidance systems in the brain.
  21. The Big Five model includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Each factor exists on a continuum, and people fall somewhere in the middle of each trait. The Big Five factors are relatively stable over the lifespan, with some changes in conscientiousness and agreeableness over time.
  22. The HEXACO model adds honesty-humility as a sixth dimension.
  23. Evolutionary psychologists, like David Buss, identify adaptive traits that evolved for survival and reproduction.
  24. Both genetic and environmental factors play a role in shaping personality.
  25. Temperament has a biological basis, appearing early in life. The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart suggests a heritability factor in personality traits.
  26. Culture is a significant environmental factor for shaping personality. Cultural influences are crucial to consider because Western ideas about personality may not apply universally.
  27. The cultural-comparative approach tests Western ideas about personality in other cultures to determine their generalisability and cultural validity. For instance, researchers used this approach to test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s five-factor model. Asian cultures tend to be more collectivist, with lower levels of extroversion. Central and South American cultures score higher on openness, while Europeans score higher on neuroticism.
  28. Personality traits may be understood differently or have unique expressions in Indigenous cultures. Indigenous identity in Canada is diverse due to variations in culture, language, and traditions among Indigenous communities. History, colonization, oppression, displacement, and forced assimilation have influenced Indigenous Peoples’ collective history, trauma, and resilience.
  29. The Indigenous approach reacts against the dominance of Western approaches in non-Western settings. The Indigenous approach involves developing assessment instruments based on constructs relevant to the specific culture being studied. It includes translation into local languages, considering cultural perspectives, and incorporating Indigenous views on personality.
  30. Personality tests are commonly used in various contexts, including employment screening, job training, criminal cases, custody battles, and psychological disorder assessments.
  31. Personality inventories are standardized tests assessing personality. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a widely used inventory, with clinical profiles derived from responses. The NEO-PI was developed based on the Big Five model.
  32. Projective testing assesses personality using Freud’s defense mechanism of projection. Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), and Rotter Incomplete Sentences Blank (RISB) are examples of projective tests.
  33. Traditional projective tests have been criticized for test bias in cross-cultural assessments. Culturally specific projective tests may better capture the thoughts and feelings of people from non-Western cultures. Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB) and Tell-Me-A-Story Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test are examples of culturally specific projective tests.

Student Engagement Ideas

  1. Engage in a debate or discussion on the continued relevance of Freudian theories, such as the Oedipus complex and penis envy. Explore evidence both supporting and challenging these concepts in understanding human development and personality.
  2. Compare and contrast Freud’s original ideas with those of neo-Freudians like Erikson or Adler. Explore how these differences enhance or limit our understanding of personality development. Provide examples to illustrate key points.
  3. Consider different combinations of Big Five traits (e.g., Low Openness, High Conscientiousness, Low Extraversion, High Agreeableness, Low Neuroticism). Speculate on what a person with these traits might be like. Discuss whether you know anyone with similar traits and rate public figures accordingly.
  4. Take a closer look at your own personality using the trait perspective. Identify aspects of the Big Five and discuss how these traits might explain your strengths and weaknesses.
  5. Dive into an analysis of projective tests like the Rorschach Inkblot Test or the Thematic Apperception Test. Discuss the strengths and limitations of these tests and consider whether you find them useful for understanding personality.
  6. Find resources explaining the culture in a First Nation community in Canada. Speculate on the role of culture in the development of personality within that community. Think critically about how cultural factors shape individuals’ personalities.
  7. Reflect on the historical influences on personality development, particularly in Indigenous communities in Canada. Consider how historical events and trauma may have intergenerational effects on personality.

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The reference list for this chapter has been excluded from this file to reduce page count. The full reference list can be viewed online at opentextbc.ca/psychologymtdi/chapter/chapter-resources-personality/.

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Chapter Attribution

“Personality” was written and adapted by Amelia Liangzi Shi and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence. It was adapted and remixed from “Chapter 14. Personality” in Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition by Sally Walters, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence, and “XI. Personality” in Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience (2nd Edition) edited by Leanne Stevens, Jennifer Stamp, & Kevin LeBlanc, which is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

About the Author: Amelia Liangzi Shi

College of New Caledonia

I — Amelia Liangzi Shi (Chinese: 石靓子) — am a Chinese Canadian woman, and I bring a diverse range of experiences and perspectives to my role as a psychology instructor at the College of New Caledonia (CNC) on the traditional lands of the Lheidli T’enneh. I completed my Ph.D. in Cognitive Psychology at the University of Alberta, located in Treaty 6 territory, focusing my research on metamemory and autobiographical memory. I currently teach courses at CNC in introductory psychology, research methods, cognition, personality, and social psychology. Driven by a genuine desire to support and empower the students of introductory psychology, I am committed to recognising the unique needs and experiences of Indigenous students, People of Colour, individuals under the rainbow umbrella, individuals with disabilities, international students, and other marginalised voices.

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