Chapter 3. Psychological Science

Chapter Resources

Amelia Liangzi Shi

Key Takeaways

Key Takeaways

  1. The scientific method involves testing ideas (theories and hypotheses) against real-world observations.
  2. Theories explain observed phenomena and are tested through hypotheses that predict behaviour.
  3. A good theory is parsimonious, suggests future research, and is falsifiable.
  4. Hypotheses bridge abstract concepts and the real world, often using if-then statements.
  5. Deduction tests theories against observations, while induction formulates theories from observed patterns.
  6. Operational definitions specify how variables are measured to ensure clarity and replication.
  7. Peer-reviewed journals maintain quality control by having experts assess research quality and ethical conduct.
  8. Replication of studies is crucial to assessing reliability and preventing unnecessary duplication of research. The field faces a replication crisis, with some studies not replicating or showing reduced effect sizes. Collaborative efforts, like the Psychological Science Accelerator, aim to enhance study design transparency and data sharing for more reliable results.
  9. Researchers use case studies to deeply understand individuals or phenomena. Surveys gather information through questionnaires, ensuring a broader perspective.
  10. Observing behaviour in its natural context (naturalistic observation) or a controlled environment (laboratory observation) helps researchers understand real-life actions. Naturalistic observation offers realistic insights, but setting up and controlling such studies can be challenging. Conducted in a controlled environment, this method allows more control but may sacrifice ecological validity.
  11. Surveys collect data from a sample, representing a larger population. However, unrepresentative samples limit the generalisability of findings. Researchers historically focused on WEIRD samples, but diverse samples are crucial for more accurate psychological generalisations.
  12. Utilising existing databases (archival research) can provide a wealth of information without direct participant interaction.
  13. Affordable and time-efficient, correlational research is employed for predictions and exploring relationships. While it suggests associations, it cannot determine causation. Multiple explanations, such as third variables, may exist.
  14. A correlation coefficient indicates the strength (the absolute value) and direction (the sign) of relationships between variables. The closer the coefficient is to 1, the stronger the relationship. Positive correlations mean that variables move together, while negative correlations indicate opposite movements.
  15. People often mistake correlation for causation, leading to misleading conclusions. True cause-and-effect relationships require scientific experiments.
  16. Experimental research aims to explain causal relationships among variables. The independent variable (manipulated) influences the dependent variable (measured outcome).
  17. Factors that can influence study results must be controlled. Random assignment, placebo controls, single-blind, and double-blind procedures help to reduce bias.
  18. In an experiment, participants experience either one condition (between-subject) or multiple conditions (within-subject). Counterbalancing helps to control for sequence effects in within-subject designs.
  19. Clear descriptions of how variables are measured consider various methods like self-report, physiological measures, and behavioural observations.
  20. Not all research can be experimental, due to ethical concerns or impracticality, emphasising the importance of diverse research methods.
  21. While experimental research provides valuable insights into causation, researchers must navigate limitations and balance control with real-world applicability.
  22. Researchers follow guidelines from organisations like the Tri-Council Policy Statement 2. These guidelines emphasise respect, concern for welfare, and justice.
  23. Any research institution getting federal support must have an Institutional Review Board (IRB). The IRB reviews proposals, ensuring that they align with ethical principles before experiments proceed.
  24. Participants must agree willingly and be informed about the study’s details, potential risks, and implications. Parents sign for participants under the age of 18. Participants can leave the study anytime without penalty. Data collected must remain confidential.
  25. Sometimes researchers use deception to prevent biases. Deception must be justified and balanced with potential harm. Participants must receive full debriefing afterward.
  26. Research should benefit the understanding of animal behaviour or human/animal health. Opinions about animal research vary. Some argue against it on moral grounds, while others highlight its importance in medical advancements.
  27. Careful consideration is given to minimising discomfort, pain, and distress in animals.
  28. Descriptive statistics help researchers understand and summarise data collected from participants. Researchers use measures like central tendency (mean, median, mode) to understand the location of data centers. Variability measures (range, standard deviation) show the spread of data points.
  29. Many variables in psychology follow a bell-shaped, symmetrical pattern called a normal distribution.
  30. Outliers (extreme scores) can affect the mean, making the median or mode more suitable in non-symmetrical distributions.
  31. Inferential statistics help researchers make inferences about the population based on their sample. Researchers use t-tests to assess the probability that observed results are not due to chance. If the probability is less than 5%, the result is considered significant.
  32. Effect size measures the size of an effect, beyond statistical significance. It provides information about the practical significance of the results.
  33. While statistics analyze data, interpretation requires a researcher’s knowledge and expertise.
  34. Critical thinking is a vital life skill, essential for everyday decision-making, not just for professionals.
  35. It involves logical reasoning, understanding values, emotional awareness, and recognising biases and assumptions.

Student Engagement Ideas

  1. Imagine you’re a researcher planning a study. Sketch out the details of your experiment, considering variables, groups, and what you want to find out. Share and discuss your designs with the class.
  2. Read and analyze articles from psychological journals. Understand how research is communicated in scholarly settings. Discuss the structure, language, and key components of research articles.
  3. Explore cross-cultural research. Discuss how cultural factors can influence research outcomes. Analyze studies conducted in different cultural contexts and consider the implications for generalisability.
  4. Start a critical thinking journal. Reflect on your thoughts about research methodologies, biases, and assumptions. Challenge yourself to think critically and question your own perspectives.

References

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Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0045925

BBC. (2020, January 3). Nobel prize-winning scientist Frances Arnold retracts paper. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-50989423

Camerer, C. F., Dreber, A., Holzmeister, F., Ho, T. H., Huber, J., Johannesson, M., Kirchler, M., Nave, G., Nosek, B. A., Pfeiffer, T., Altmejd, A., Buttrick, N., Chan, T., Chen, Y., Forsell, E., Gampa, A., Heikensten, E., Hummer, L., Imai, T., Isaksson, S., … Wu, H. (2018). Evaluating the replicability of social science experiments in Nature and Science between 2010 and 2015. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(9), 637–644. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-018-0399-z

Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, & Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. (2022). Tri-Council Policy Statement: Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans – TCPS 2 (2022). Government of Canada. https://ethics.gc.ca/eng/policy-politique_tcps2-eptc2_2022.html

Canadian Psychological Association. (2017). Canadian code of ethics for psychologists (4th ed.). https://cpa.ca/docs/File/Ethics/CPA_Code_2017_4thEd.pdf

Dahlgren, G. H., & Hansen, H. (2015). I’d rather be nice than honest: An experimental examination of social desirability bias in tourism surveys. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 21(4), 318–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356766715577503

De La Hunty, A., & Ashwell, M. (2007). Are people who regularly eat breakfast cereals slimmer than those who don’t? A systematic review of the evidence. Nutrition Bulletin, 32(2), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00638.x

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. (n.d.). Photograph of Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study [Photograph]. National Archives Catalogue. https://catalog.archives.gov/id/956095

Dominus, S. (2011, May 29). Could conjoined twins share a mind? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/29/magazine/could-conjoined-twins-share-a-mind.html

Egnor, M. (2017, December 10). The Craniopagus twins and Thomistic dualism. Neuroscience & Mind. https://evolutionnews.org/2017/12/the-craniopagus-twins-and-thomistic-dualism/

Frantzen, L. B., Treviño, R. P., Echon, R. M., Garcia-Dominic, O., & DiMarco, N. (2013). Association between frequency of ready-to-eat cereal consumption, nutrient intakes, and body mass index in fourth-to sixth-grade low-income minority children. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 113(4), 511–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2013.01.006

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? The Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 61–135. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X

Ormandy, E. H., & Schuppli, C. A. (2014). Public attitudes toward animal research: A review. Animals, 4(3), 391–408. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani4030391

Stangor, C. (2011). Research methods for the behavioral sciences (4th ed.). Cengage.

Sullivan, G. M., & Feinn, R. (2012). Using effect size – or why the p value is not enough. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 4(3), 279–282. https://doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-12-00156.1

Tuskegee University. (n.d.). About the USPHS Syphilis Study. https://www.tuskegee.edu/about-us/centers-of-excellence/bioethics-center/about-the-usphs-syphilis-study

Wade, C. (1995). Using writing to develop and assess critical thinking. Teaching of Psychology, 22(1), 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top2201_8

Williams, L., & Snively, G. (2016). “Coming to know”: A framework for Indigenous science education. In G. Snively & W. L. Williams (Eds.), Braiding Indigenous science with western science (chapter 3). Pressbooks. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/knowinghome/chapter/chapter-3/

Chapter Attribution

“Psychological Science” was written and adapted by Amelia Liangzi Shi and is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence. It was adapted and remixed from “1.1 Psychology as a Science” and “Chapter 2. Psychological Science” in Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition by Sally Walters, which is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence, and “Psychological Research” in Introduction to Psychology & Neuroscience (2nd Edition) edited by Leanne Stevens, Jennifer Stamp, & Kevin LeBlanc, which is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

About the Author: Amelia Liangzi Shi

College of New Caledonia

I — Amelia Liangzi Shi (Chinese: 石靓子) — am a Chinese Canadian woman, and I bring a diverse range of experiences and perspectives to my role as a psychology instructor at the College of New Caledonia (CNC) on the traditional lands of the Lheidli T’enneh. I completed my Ph.D. in Cognitive Psychology at the University of Alberta, located in Treaty 6 territory, focusing my research on metamemory and autobiographical memory. I currently teach courses at CNC in introductory psychology, research methods, cognition, personality, and social psychology. Driven by a genuine desire to support and empower the students of introductory psychology, I am committed to recognising the unique needs and experiences of Indigenous students, People of Colour, individuals under the rainbow umbrella, individuals with disabilities, international students, and other marginalised voices.

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