Chapter 2. History of Psychology
Creative Tensions in Psychology
Jessica Motherwell McFarlane
Approximate reading time: 66 minutes
Now that we have our two important questions, ”What are we trying to do with our theories?” and ”Who is not in the picture (has been excluded)?” we are ready to read this chapter. First, we will learn about the major theories. Each theory, like a tool in a toolbox, has its specific purpose and context. Just as a hammer is not suitable for every task, each psychological theory has its strengths and limitations, applicable in certain scenarios but not in others. Our exploration will reveal how these theories, when applied judiciously, contribute to a thorough understanding of human behaviour and mental processes.
Second, the Singing Daisy: Who is not in the picture? story reminds us to be aware of how each historical psychologist limited their focus to special groups or made efforts to broaden their focus for greater inclusivity. Historically, psychology has often focused on a narrow segment of the population, for example, White males, leaving out many other voices and experiences. As we examine each theory, we have a responsibility to also consider who has been historically excluded from these theories and related research. By conscientiously asking our guiding question: “Who is not in the picture?”, we can remind ourselves to include marginalised people and help to build a more comprehensive understanding of psychology of humans who widely differ in abilities, ages, genders, sexualities, personalities, and other ways.
You are also about to discover in this chapter that there is a creative tension — a friction — between theories that may appear contradictory or opposite. This tension is not about conflict, but rather about how these differing perspectives can complement and enrich each other and offer us a better understanding of complex psychological phenomena.
For example, there is a creative tension between biopsychology and cultural psychology. Biopsychology, with its focus on the biological underpinnings of behaviour, such as brain function and genetics, might seem to be the opposite of cultural psychology, which emphasises the influence of cultural and societal factors on behaviour. Considering the research from both biopsychology and cultural psychology helps us to grow a more complete understanding of the many internal and external influencers of human behaviour. Together, they provide a more comprehensive view, acknowledging both the innate and environmental factors that shape human psychology.
In summary, this apparent creative tension in psychology is not about choosing one theory over another. It’s about benefiting from the strengths and being mindful of the weaknesses of each approach to gain a deeper understanding of the human mind and behaviour. Our embracing this creative tension is our way of acknowledging that psychology is too complex to be fully explained by any single theory.
| Theory | Description |
|---|---|
| Functionalism | Studies mental life and emphasises adaptation to environments. |
| Structuralism | Analyses consciousness, breaking it into elemental structures. |
| Behaviourism | Observes behaviour, ignoring internal mental state analysis. |
| Cognitivism | Emphasises internal mental processes, beyond observable behaviour. |
| Humanism | Focuses on individual potential, emphasising personal growth. |
| Gestalt Psychology | Studies the mind’s holistic processing of patterns. |
| Feminism | Explores systemic sexist discrimination and gender dynamics, advocating for women’s equality. |
| Indigenous Psychology | Centres on Indigenous rights, traditions, and practices in understanding psychological processes. |
| Racial Theory and Identity | Explores systemic racial discrimination and race’s impact on identity and experiences. |
| Multicultural Psychology | Explores diverse cultural influences on individual psychology. |
| Cross-Cultural Psychology | Compares psychological phenomena across different cultural contexts. |
Structuralism versus Functionalism
Structuralism is a psychological approach that aims to understand the mind’s structure by dissecting its components, such as sensations, feelings, and images. This approach is particularly effective in controlled settings where introspection is used to identify and categorise the basic elements of mental processes. However, structuralism’s reliance on introspection can lead to subjective results, meaning that the findings can be influenced by personal feelings or opinions, and thus difficult to verify objectively. It also faces challenges in explaining dynamic mental processes, which are the constantly changing and evolving aspects of how the mind works, such as how we think or feel in response to different situations.
Functionalism, on the other hand, focuses on the purpose and function of consciousness and behaviour. It views mental life and behaviour through the lens of adaptation to the environment. Functionalism excels in exploring the reasons behind mental processes, especially in contexts that consider natural and evolutionary factors. However, this approach may not delve deeply into the underlying structure of these processes, sometimes missing the finer details of the mental components.
The Creative Tension
The creative tension between structuralism and functionalism lies in their contrasting approaches to understanding the mind. Structuralism provides an in-depth analysis of mental processes, similar to zooming in on the fine details of the mind’s components. In contrast, functionalism adopts a broader lens, focusing on the overarching purpose and function of these processes in relation to the environment. Together, these two theories offer a more comprehensive understanding of psychology, merging the detailed examination of mental components with an appreciation of their broader functional roles in the context of human adaptation and behaviour.
Case Study Part 1: Jamie Transfers to a New School
Jamie, a 9-year-old South Asian male-identified child, recently transferred from India to a new school in BC. Since the transition, Jamie has been displaying aggressive behaviour on the playground, often getting into conflicts with other children.
Structuralism perspective
From a structuralist viewpoint, Jamie’s aggression would be analysed by breaking down the experience into basic elements of consciousness. This approach might involve examining Jamie’s sensations, feelings, and images associated with the school transition and playground incidents. The focus would be on identifying the fundamental components of Jamie’s aggressive behaviour, such as specific triggers or thoughts preceding the aggression. To address Jamie’s aggression, a structuralist might encourage introspective techniques to help Jamie identify and articulate the specific sensations and thoughts associated with his aggressive behaviour. The intervention could involve guided reflection or journaling to dissect and understand the fundamental components of the aggression.
Functionalism perspective
Functionalism would look at Jamie’s aggressive behaviour in terms of its purpose or function. This perspective might explore how aggression serves as an adaptive response to the stress of changing schools. It could consider the role of aggression in helping Jamie cope with feelings of insecurity or in establishing a place in the new social hierarchy. Intervention, from a functionalist perspective, would involve helping Jamie find alternative, more adaptive behaviours that fulfil the same function as the aggression. This could include developing coping strategies for stress or facilitating positive social interactions that provide a sense of security and belonging.
Watch this video: Structuralism & Functionalism (8 minutes)
“Structuralism & Functionalism” video by Skepsy is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Behaviourism versus Humanism, Gestalt Theory, and Psychoanalysis
Behaviourism is a theory of learning based on the idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning and that the environment shapes behaviour. It is powerful in settings where behaviour can be observed and measured, such as in conditioning and learning. However, behaviourism falls short of addressing internal experiences like emotions, thoughts, and motivations.
Humanism and gestalt theory emphasise individual potential, self-actualisation (achieving one’s fullest potential), perception, and problem-solving, suggesting that we experience things as unified wholes. These theories excel in understanding subjective (based on personal feelings or opinions), holistic aspects of human experience, but may lack the empirical rigour and objectivity found in behaviourism.
The Creative Tension
The creative tension between behaviourism and humanism and gestalt theory lies in their contrasting focuses. Behaviourism’s strength is in its objective analysis of observable behaviours and the influence of the environment, while humanism and gestalt theory delve into the subjective experiences and internal processes of individuals. This contrast highlights the need for a more complex approach in psychology, integrating both the measurable aspects of behaviour and the deeper, experiential dimensions of the human psyche.
Case Study Part 2: Jamie Transfers to a New School
Behaviourism perspective
A behaviourist would focus on observable behaviours and external stimuli. In Jamie’s case, the behaviourist might examine how the new environment and interactions with peers reinforce aggressive behaviour. For instance, if Jamie’s aggression results in gaining attention or control over playground activities, these outcomes might be reinforcing the behaviour. A behaviourist would likely use reinforcement strategies to reduce aggression. This intervention could involve a reward system for non-aggressive behaviour or implementing consequences that discourage aggression, thereby modifying Jamie’s behaviour through environmental stimuli.
Humanism perspective
Humanistic psychology would emphasise Jamie’s individual experience and potential for growth. This perspective might explore how Jamie’s aggression is a response to unmet needs, such as the need for belonging or self-esteem. The focus would be on understanding Jamie’s subjective experience and fostering an environment that supports self-actualisation and positive social interactions. Humanistic intervention would focus on creating an environment that meets Jamie’s emotional needs, thereby reducing the need for aggression. This might involve counseling sessions where Jamie can express feelings and concerns, or activities that build self-esteem and a sense of belonging.
Gestalt theory perspective
In the Gestalt therapy approach, the therapist would help Jamie understand and manage his aggression by focusing on his present experiences and feelings at school, emphasising the holistic principle that behaviour is influenced by the entirety of one’s life experiences, not isolated incidents. Using role-playing and other creative activities like the empty chair technique, Jamie would act out situations that lead to his aggressive behaviour, helping him express and process his feelings. The therapist would engage Jamie in a direct and open conversation, encouraging him to explore different sides of his feelings—like anger versus a desire for friendship. By guiding Jamie to be aware of his emotions and reactions as they happen, and understanding how various parts of his school life contribute to his behaviour, the therapy aims to integrate these insights, helping Jamie respond more positively in his environment.
Watch this video: Behaviorism: Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner (5 minutes)
“Behaviourism: Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner” video by Alana Snow is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Watch this video: Clip from Rorschach and Freudians: Crash Course Psychology #21(2 minutes) Video clip starts at 9:25 – please watch until 11:23.
“Rorschach and Freudians: Crash Course Psychology #21” video by CrashCourse is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Watch this video: Gestalt Psychology (3 minutes)
“Gestalt Psychology” video by Portia Smith is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
The Cognitive Revolution versus Feminist, Indigenous, and Race Theories
The Cognitive Revolution
The Cognitive Revolution, a pivotal shift in psychology that began in the 1950s, emphasises the study of internal mental processes such as thinking, decision-making, language, and memory. This revolution marked a significant move towards understanding the human mind, focusing on how these internal processes govern our interactions and interpretations of the world.
Watch this video: Cognitive Psychology explained in less than 5 minutes (5 minutes)
“Cognitive Psychology explained in less than 5 minutes” video by Psychology Unlocked is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Feminist, Indigenous, and Race Theories
Feminist, Indigenous, and Race Theories have emerged to challenge the cognitive revolution. These theories focus on the external, socio-cultural factors that significantly influence mental processes. They explore how cultural context, gender dynamics, racial identity, and systemic discrimination interact with and shape cognitive processes. For instance, feminist psychologists and theorists challenge traditional cognitive approaches by emphasising how stereotypes about gender can shape cognitive processes. They investigate how societal expectations and biases influence the way individuals think, feel, and behave. Similarly, Indigenous and race theories emphasise the importance of cultural and racial contexts in psychological processes, exploring intersectionality (how one thing influences and then, in turn, is influenced by another thing), racial identity, and the psychology of racism.
The Creative Tension
The creative tension between the cognitive revolution and these socio-cultural theories lies in their differing but complementary approaches. While the cognitive revolution delves into how we think, feminist, Indigenous, and race theories highlight the external influences that shape these cognitive processes. This ‘friction’ between these two approaches creates a more holistic understanding of psychology, acknowledging the importance of both internal cognitive mechanisms and the external socio-cultural environments that shape them.
Do you think that the way we think and solve problems is mostly the same for everyone, regardless of their background (like The Cognitive Revolution might suggest), or do you believe that our cultures, genders, and histories change how we see the world (as Feminist, Indigenous, and Race Theories would argue)? Can you think of an example from your life or someone you know that backs up your answer?
Case Study Part 3: Jamie Transfers to a New School
Cognitive perspective
From a cognitive standpoint, the focus would be on Jamie’s internal thought processes and how they contribute to aggressive behaviour. This approach might explore how Jamie interprets interactions with peers or how cognitive biases and distortions (like perceiving neutral actions as hostile) are influencing behaviour. Cognitive intervention would focus on changing Jamie’s thought patterns. This could involve cognitive-behavioural therapy to help Jamie recognise and alter distorted thinking that leads to aggression, such as teaching Jamie to interpret peer interactions more accurately.
Feminist theory perspective
Feminist theory would examine Jamie’s behaviour through the lens of gender dynamics, power structures, and societal expectations around masculinity and femininity. This perspective might consider how societal norms and stereotypes about gender and aggression are influencing Jamie’s interactions on the playground. For instance, if Jamie identifies with a gender that is socially expected to be aggressive, this might be contributing to the behaviour. Feminist interventions would focus on challenging and deconstructing these harmful stereotypes and norms. This could involve discussions and activities that promote gender equality and teach healthy, non-violent ways of expressing emotions and resolving conflicts. The aim would be to empower Jamie to adopt behaviours that are not constrained by harmful gender norms.
Racial theory perspective
From a racial theory standpoint, Jamie’s behaviour could be explored in the context of racial identity and the experiences of racism or microaggressions. This perspective would consider how Jamie’s South Asian identity might affect interactions with peers and feelings of belonging in the new school environment. Racial theory would emphasise understanding the impact of racial dynamics on Jamie’s aggressive behaviour. Interventions might include creating a supportive school environment that acknowledges and celebrates racial diversity, along with providing Jamie and peers with education on racial awareness and anti-racism. This approach aims to reduce racial tensions and promote a sense of belonging and acceptance for Jamie, potentially mitigating the aggression.
Indigenous theories perspective
Indigenous theories would bring a unique lens, focusing on the importance of community, connection to land, and the holistic well-being of individuals. Although Jamie is South Asian, applying an indigenous perspective can offer valuable insights into fostering a sense of belonging and community. This perspective might explore how disconnection from cultural roots and community in the new school setting could be influencing Jamie’s behaviour. Indigenous interventions could involve incorporating practices that strengthen community bonds, respect for all living beings, and a deep sense of belonging. This might include community circles where Jamie and classmates share stories and experiences, fostering mutual respect and understanding. The goal would be to create a school environment where Jamie feels a strong sense of community and interconnectedness, reducing the need for aggression as a form of expression or self-defence.
Watch this video: Indigenous psychology (20.5 minutes)
“Indigenous psychology” video by Yopina G Pertiwi is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Biopsychology and Neuropsychology versus Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology
Biopsychology and neuropsychology delve into the biological aspects of human behaviour and mental processes, emphasising the roles of brain function, neurotransmitters, and genetics. This approach offers valuable insights into the physiological mechanisms underlying various psychological phenomena. However, it tends to focus more on the internal, biological factors, potentially overlooking the broader cultural and environmental influences.
On the other hand, multicultural psychology and cross-cultural psychology focus on the external influences on human behaviour and mental processes. These fields examine how cultural contexts and societal norms shape and influence psychological phenomena, providing a more comprehensive understanding of behaviour and mental processes in different cultural settings. This approach broadens the scope beyond the biological aspects, considering the significant impact of cultural and environmental factors.
The Creative Tension
The creative tension between biopsychology and neuropsychology, and multicultural and cross-cultural psychology, gives us the basis for the age old question in psychology: “Are humans more influenced by nature or nurture?” Biopsychology and neuropsychology delve into the “nature” aspect, exploring the biological and genetic underpinnings of behaviour. In contrast, multicultural and cross-cultural psychology focus on the “nurture” side, examining how cultural and societal contexts shape psychological processes. This back and forth between nature and nurture creates a more complete understanding of human psychology, acknowledging both our biological makeup and the environmental influences that shape our behaviour and mental processes.
Case Study Part 4: Jamie Transfers to a New School
Biopsychology and neuropsychology perspective
A biopsychological or neuropsychological approach to Jamie’s aggression would be to look at biological factors that might be influencing his acting out. This could include examining neurological or hormonal factors that affect behaviour, or considering any genetic predispositions to aggressive behaviour. Intervention from a biopsychological standpoint might involve a medical evaluation to check for any neurological or hormonal imbalances. If biological factors are influencing Jamie’s aggression, appropriate medical treatments or dietary changes could be recommended.
From a multicultural and cross-cultural psychology perspective, understanding Jamie’s aggressive behaviour involves examining the cultural and societal influences at play, particularly how Jamie’s South Asian background interacts with the new school’s cultural norms. This approach highlights the importance of cultural identity and the potential challenges of cultural misunderstandings or biases, such as racism or exclusion. Interventions would focus on enhancing cultural competence within the school, including training for teachers and students on cultural awareness, and providing Jamie with culturally responsive counselling. By promoting an inclusive environment that celebrates diversity and supports students from diverse backgrounds, the school can better support Jamie’s adjustment and well-being, addressing the root cultural and environmental factors contributing to their behaviour.
Watch this video: What is Biological Psychology? #Alevel #Revision (Themes in Psychology Explained) (4 minutes)
“What is Biological Psychology? #Alevel #Revision (Themes in Psychology Explained)” video by StartStudying is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic theory centres on the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour, highlighting the importance of early life experiences in personality development. This theory offers valuable insights into the unconscious aspects of the human psyche that are particularly useful in clinical settings. However, it has faced criticism for its over emphasis on sexuality, early life experiences, and historical sexist biases.
Feminist contributions to psychoanalytic theory have addressed these biases, broadening its scope and applicability. This has led to a more inclusive understanding of human behaviour and mental processes, integrating diverse experiences and perspectives.
The Creative Tension
The creative tension here lies in the different focuses between psychoanalytic theory and other psychological theories like the cognitive revolution, behaviourism, humanism, Gestalt theory, and socio-cultural theories. Psychoanalytic theory delves into the universal aspects of the unconscious mind, while other theories such as the cognitive revolution focus on conscious mental processes. Socio-cultural theories emphasise external societal and cultural influences, and behaviourism looks at observable behaviours influenced by the environment. Humanism and gestalt theories concentrate on individual experiences and perceptions.
If someone is afraid of dogs, do you think it’s more helpful to know about a scary experience they might have forgotten from when they were very little (Psychoanalytic Theory) or to work on changing their reaction to dogs now through practice (Behaviourism)? Why?
Case Study Part 5: Jamie Transfers to a New School
Psychoanalytic theory perspective
From a psychoanalytic viewpoint, Jamie’s aggression might be seen as an expression of unconscious conflicts, possibly stemming from the stress of changing schools. This perspective might explore underlying fears or anxieties that are being manifested as aggression. A psychoanalytic approach to intervention might involve therapy sessions where Jamie can explore and articulate unconscious fears or anxieties related to the school transition. The therapist would help Jamie uncover and work through underlying emotional conflicts driving the aggressive behaviour.
Case study summary
In summary, each psychological theory offers a unique lens through which to understand and address Jamie’s aggressive behaviour. By considering the different perspectives, a more comprehensive understanding of Jamie’s situation can be achieved, leading to more effective strategies for support and intervention. Each of these theoretical approaches offers a different strategy for intervening in Jamie’s aggressive behaviour, providing a range of options for understanding and addressing the challenges Jamie faces in the new school environment.
This variety in focus creates a rich, complex field in psychology. Each theory contributes unique insights, combining to form a more comprehensive understanding of human psychology. It is essential for students and practitioners in psychology to be prepared to apply, when applicable, the psychoanalytic theories about the unconscious, to create a broader spectrum of perspectives to understand the human mind and behaviour.
Summary
This section introduces the concept of historical and present day creative tensions in psychology, emphasising the importance of diverse theories and perspectives. It highlights how different psychological theories, each with its specific strengths and limitations, contribute to our deeper understanding of human behaviour and mental processes. It encourages you to consider who has been historically excluded from psychological research and theory development, advocating for a more inclusive approach that acknowledges the contributions of marginalised groups. No single theory can fully explain the full breadth and complexity of human psychology. Thus, we discover the value of studying many theories that may seem contradictory, such as behaviourism and humanism, or biopsychology and cultural psychology, because these creative tensions can lead us to a more holistic understanding of psychology and what it means to be human.
To calculate this time, we used a reading speed of 150 words per minute and then added extra time to account for images and videos. This is just to give you a rough idea of the length of the chapter section. How long it will take you to engage with this chapter will vary greatly depending on all sorts of things (the complexity of the content, your ability to focus, etc).
