Chapter 13. Motivation
Psychological Theories of Motivation
Jessica Motherwell McFarlane
Approximate reading time: 26 minutes
In this section we will discuss some of the psychological theories of what motivates us. Each theorist has attempted to describe the core issues that drive us to keep going and stay engaged with the world. We begin with theories that fall under these broader categories: basic physiological and safety needs; social and interpersonal needs; personal growth and self-actualisation needs; recreational needs; and legacy needs. Tables MO.1 – MO.5 provides a quick overview of each theory. We will then explore each theory in more detail. Note: The appearance of the same theorist across different sections highlights various aspects of their work that span several categories.
As you read through these theories, closely consider the second column, “What Motivates Us?” and ask yourself these questions: Which of the following are strong motivations for you? Which of your strong motivators are not listed below? Which don’t motivate you at all?
| What motivates us? | Name of theorist | Name of theory | Brief description of theory |
|---|---|---|---|
| Living in Balance with Natural Resources and All Relations | Blackstock, Schultz, Sirgy & Wu, Zhang-min | Balance | Living in balance is a powerful motivation that encompasses environmental stewardship, respect for all forms of life, and the pursuit of a harmonious and sustainable existence. |
| Survival and Safety | Abraham Maslow | Hierarchy of Needs | Places physiological needs and safety at the foundation of the hierarchy, emphasising their primal importance in human motivation. |
| What motivates us? | Name of theorist | Name of theory | Brief description of theory |
|---|---|---|---|
| Belonging and Love | Maslow | Hierarchy of Needs | Identifies the human need for interpersonal relationships and affection, crucial for motivation. |
| Intimacy | McAdams | Intimacy Motivation | Individuals’ motivation for intimate, warm, and close relationships impacts their behaviour and interpersonal interactions (McAdams, 1980; McAdams & Constantian, 1983). |
| Community Generosity, Trust, and Cooperation | Blackfoot | Community Generosity, Trust, and Cooperation | Creating a culture of generosity, trust, and cooperation, rather than one of inequality and individualism. |
| Achievement, Power, and Affiliation. | McClelland | Theory of Needs or Acquired-Needs Theory | Needs are acquired over time and shaped by one’s life experiences. Need for achievement (nAch), need for affiliation (nAff), and need for power (nPow) influence a person’s motivation in various job functions or life situations (Clayton & Ritter, 2023). |
| Esteem and Recognition | Alfred Adler, Maslow | Inferiority Complex and Esteem Needs | Highlight the human desire for respect and recognition from peers. |
| What motivates us? | Name of theorist | Name of theory | Brief description of theory |
|---|---|---|---|
| Curiosity and Knowledge | Jean Piaget | Cognitive Development Theory | Underscores the human drive to explore, learn, and make sense of the world. |
| Autonomy and Control | Edward Deci and Richard Ryan | Self-Determination Theory | Emphasises the intrinsic human need for autonomy and control over one’s life. |
| Purpose and Meaning | Viktor Frankl | Logotherapy | Suggests that the search for meaning is a primary human drive. |
| Achievement and Mastery | Carol Dweck | Mindset Theory | Suggests that the belief in the ability to develop skills through effort motivates individuals to seek mastery and personal improvement. |
| Believing in Oneself | Albert Bandura | Self-Efficacy Theory | Believing in one’s capabilities to achieve goals fuels motivation, driving individuals to tackle challenges with confidence. |
| Creativity and Expression | Carl Rogers | Humanistic Psychology | Highlights the importance of self-expression and creativity in personal fulfilment. |
| What motivates us? | Name of theorist | Name of theory | Brief description of theory |
|---|---|---|---|
| Play and Leisure | Stuart Brown | Research on play | Emphasises play’s significance throughout life, essential for cognitive development, social skills, and overall well-being. |
| What motivates us? | Name of theorist | Name of theory | Brief description of theory |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cultural Perpetuity, Conservation, and Legacy | Erik Erikson | Stages of Psychosocial Development | Suggests that adults are motivated to contribute to the next generation and leave a lasting impact. |
Basic Physiological and Safety Needs
Living in Balance with Natural Resources and All Relations
Living in balance is a powerful motivation that involves environmental stewardship, respect for all forms of life, and the pursuit of a harmonious and sustainable existence. Without sustainable harvesting and peaceful co-existence, our survival is threatened at a basic level (Blackstock, 2021; Schultz, 2002; Sirgy & Wu, 2009; Zhang-min, 2009). In other words, trying to live in balance means that we really care about taking care of the environment, respecting all kinds of life, and living together in a way that can keep going for a long time. An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you decide to use a reusable water bottle instead of buying plastic ones, to reduce waste and live more sustainably.
Survival and Safety
Abraham Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’ places physiological needs and safety at the foundation of the hierarchy, emphasizing their primal importance in human motivation. These basic needs for physical survival and security must be met before pursuing higher-level desires or ambitions, highlighting their motivational role in human behaviour (Carducci, 2020; Cui, 2023; Wei & Ma, 2022). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you install smoke detectors in your home to feel safer and more secure.
Social and Interpersonal Needs
Belonging and Love
Abraham Maslow also identifies the human need for interpersonal relationships and affection, which are crucial for motivation. The desire for belonging and love drives human behaviour, influencing social interactions and personal development (Silton et al., 2011; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Montag et al., 2020). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you join a campus club to meet new friends and feel a sense of community.
Intimacy
Dan McAdams explored how individuals’ motivation for intimate, warm, and close relationships impacts their behaviour and interpersonal interactions. McAdams studied intimacy motivation, and found that it influenced personal relationships and psychological well-being (McAdams, 1980; McAdams & Constantian, 1983). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you join a dating event in your pursuit of a love interest.
Community Generosity, Trust, and Cooperation
Cindy Blackfoot’s Breath of Life Theory focuses on creating a culture of generosity, trust, and cooperation, rather than one of inequality and individualism. Learning to cooperate, forgiving wrongdoing, and pursuing the sharing of resources and wisdom make life more livable (Ravilochan, 2021). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you volunteer at a local food bank to help those in need, building trust and cooperation in your community.
Achievement, Affiliation, and Intimacy
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs (or Acquired-Needs Theory) proposes that an individual’s specific needs are acquired over time and shaped by one’s life experiences. McClelland identified three primary types of motivational needs: the need for achievement (nAch), the need for affiliation (nAff), and the need for power (nPow). He suggested that these needs influence a person’s motivation and effectiveness in various job functions or life situations (Clayton & Ritter, 2023). For example, imagine a young entrepreneur starting a small business. Driven by a high need for achievement, she sets ambitious sales targets and works tirelessly to develop innovative products. Her strong need for affiliation leads her to build a close-knit team, fostering a supportive and collaborative work environment. Additionally, her need for power is evident as she takes charge in making strategic decisions and aspires to influence industry standards. This combination of needs motivates her to not only strive for personal and business success but also to create a positive and influential presence in her community.
Esteem and Recognition
Alfred Adler’s “Inferiority Complex” and Maslow’s “Esteem Needs” both highlight the human desire for respect and recognition from peers. This need for esteem and validation is a powerful motivator in human behaviour, influencing personal and professional pursuits (Mosak & Maniacci, 2013; Grey, 1998; Ansbacher, 1971). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you post a video of yourself playing a guitar cover of a popular song on social media, hoping for likes and positive comments from your followers and friends.
Personal Growth and Self-Actualisation
Curiosity and Knowledge
Jean Piaget’s “Cognitive Development Theory” underscores the human drive to explore, learn, and make sense of the world. This innate curiosity is a key motivator for cognitive development and lifelong learning (Miller, 2010; Babakr et al., 2019; Sanghvi, 2020). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you start learning a new language on a mobile app because you’re curious about the culture and want to travel there someday.
Autonomy and Control
Edward Deci and Richard Ryan’s “Self-Determination Theory” emphasises the intrinsic human need for autonomy and control over one’s life. Feeling a sense of agency in actions is a significant motivator, affecting personal satisfaction and fulfilment (Deci et al., 1994; Daly Wagner & French, 2010; Vallerand et al., 1995). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you plan and embark on a solo hiking trip, choosing the trail and pace yourself, and enjoying the freedom of making your own decisions along the way.
Purpose and Meaning
Viktor Frankl’s “Logotherapy” suggests that the search for meaning is a primary human drive. Aligning actions with deeper existential goals (i.e., goals that relate to the meaning of life) provides a strong motivation for living a purposeful life (Kimble, 2014; Brencio, 2016; Costello, 2015). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you volunteer for a cause you care about deeply, finding personal fulfilment in making a difference.
Achievement and Mastery
Carol Dweck’s “Mindset Theory” suggests that the belief in the ability to develop skills through effort motivates individuals to seek mastery and personal improvement. This growth mindset is a key driver in the pursuit of achievement (Dweck, 2021; Brooks & Goldstein, 2013; Maratos & Venos, 2021). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you decide to learn how to cook by starting with simple recipes and gradually tackling more complex dishes, believing that with practice, you’ll master cooking.
Belief in Your Abilities
Albert Bandura’s “Self-Efficacy” theory highlights the power of believing in one’s capability to achieve goals. Bandura (1994) suggests that this belief fuels motivation, driving individuals to tackle challenges with confidence. According to him, trusting in your abilities encourages persistence in the face of obstacles, much like persisting in a difficult video game level until you succeed. An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you sign up for a marathon, continuing to train regularly and believe in your ability to finish the race, even when the training gets tough.
Creativity and Self-Expression
Carl Rogers’s “Humanistic Psychology” highlights our need for self-expression and for us to be creative. Understanding ourselves and expressing who we are can make us feel fulfilled. Research shows that believing in our own creative abilities and seeing ourselves as creative people are important parts of our personal growth (Karwowski, 2016). Also, doing things we enjoy, like hobbies, can help us express ourselves and figure out who we are (Whiting & Hannam, 2015). In school, having the chance to learn in our own way can boost our creativity and help us get more involved in creative projects (Morris, 2020). An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you join a community art class to explore painting and enjoy the process of bringing your unique ideas to life on the canvas.
Recreational and Legacy Needs
Play and Leisure
Stuart Brown’s theory underscores the importance of play across the human lifespan, not merely during childhood. Brown posits that play is a core element of the human experience, integral to decision-making, problem-solving, collaboration, and managing conflicts. He suggests that an innate desire for play is crucial for the development of cognitive abilities, social competencies, and overall well-being, arguing that the absence or suppression of play represents a significant shortfall in societal structures (Donahoo, 2016; Yogman et al., 2018). Supporting evidence highlights play’s pivotal role in advancing cognitive development and enhancing social skills, demonstrating its significance in the formal operational stage of cognitive development (Ahmad et al., 2016) and its correlation with language development and cognitive abilities (Osman & Farag, 2019). An illustrative example of engaging in this essential activity is taking a break from homework to enjoy a role-playing adventure game with friends, fostering laughter and relaxation.
Cultural Perpetuity, Conservation, and Legacy
Erik Erikson’s “Stages of Psychosocial Development,” specifically the “Generativity versus Stagnation” stage, suggests that adults are motivated to contribute to the next generation and leave a lasting impact. This drive manifests in various ways, from raising children to creating enduring works or institutions. An example of taking action on this need/motivation is when you start a blog to document and share your family’s cultural traditions with others, contributing to the preservation of your heritage.
Watch this video: The Power of Motivation: Crash Course Psychology #17 (11.5 minutes)
“The Power of Motivation: Crash Course Psychology #17” video by CrashCourse is licensed under the Standard YouTube licence.
Summary: Psychological Theories of Motivation
As we conclude our exploration of the psychological theories of motivation, we’ve discussed some of the foundational needs that motivate us to focus on survival, connection, personal achievement, and the legacy we hope to leave. We’ve learned how diverse motivations shape our engagement with the world. The discussion on social and interpersonal needs, esteem, and the pursuit of creativity, expression, play and recreational needs revealed more aspects that can motivate us.
Were you able to think of values that motivate you that are not listed in this section? This section is designed to encourage you to reflect on our own needs and motivations. As you read on in this chapter, consider how these theories resonate with your experiences. Whether it’s the quest for balance with nature, the need for belonging, the drive for personal growth, or the desire to contribute to future generations, understanding these motivations offers valuable insights into our behaviours and the choices we make.
Image Attributions
Figure MO.4. Purpose and meaning by Marie Bartlett is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 license.
Figure MO.5. Photo by Natasha Hall on Unsplash.
To calculate this time, we used a reading speed of 150 words per minute and then added extra time to account for images and videos. This is just to give you a rough idea of the length of the chapter section. How long it will take you to engage with this chapter will vary greatly depending on all sorts of things (the complexity of the content, your ability to focus, etc).
