In the workplace, many of the communications tasks you perform are designed to solve a problem or improve a situation. Whether you are doing work for a client, for your employer, with your team, or for someone else, you will typically use some sort of design process to tackle and solve the problem. A clearly-articulated design process provides you with a clear, step-by-step plan for finding the best solution for your situation.

Take a moment to search the Internet for the term “design process” and look at “images.” You will find many variations. Have a look at several of them and see if you can find a common pattern.

One commonality you will likely find in examining other people’s design process diagrams is this: the first step in designing any solution is to clearly define the problem. Figure 1.1.1 shows NASA’s basic design process. Think about the kind of communication that each step of this process might entail.

Figure 1.1.1 NASA’s Design Process Diagram.

You cannot begin to work on solutions until you have a clear definition of the problem and goals you want to achieve. This critical first stage of the design process requires that you effectively communicate with the “client” or whoever has the “problem” that needs solving. Poor communication at this stage can derail a project from the start.

For our purposes, we will use Barry Hyman’s Problem Formulation model  to clearly define a problem. Hyman’s Problem Formulation model consists of 4 elements:

1. Need Statement: recognizes and describes the need for a solution or improvement to an “unsatisfactory situation.”  It answers the questions, “what is wrong with the way things are currently? What is unsatisfactory about it? What negative effects does this situation cause?” You may need to do research and supply data to quantify the negative effects.
2. Goal Statement:  describes what the improved situation would look like once a solution has been implemented. The goal statement defines the scope of your search for a solution. At this point, do not describe your solution, only the goal that any proposed solution should achieve. The broader you make your goal, the more numerous and varied the solution can be; a narrowly focused goal limits the number and variety of possible solutions.
3. Objectives:  define measurable, specific outcomes that any feasible solution should optimize (aspects you can use to “grade” the effectiveness of the solution). Objectives provide you with ways to quantifiably measure how well any solution will solve the problem; ideally, they will allow you to compare multiple solutions and figure out which one is most effective (which one gets the highest score on meeting the objectives?).
4. Constraints:  define the limits that any feasible solution must adhere to in order to be acceptable (pass/fail conditions, range limits, etc.). The key word here is must — constraints are the “go/no go” conditions that determine whether a solution is acceptable or not.  These often include budget and time limits, as well as legal, safety and other regulatory requirements.

Communication as Solution

This model can apply to a communications task as well as more physical design tasks. Imagine your communications task as something that will solve a problem or improve a situation. Before you begin drafting this document or presentation, define the problem you want to solve with this document:

• Understand the Need: consider what gave rise to the need to communicate. Does someone lack sufficient information to make a decision or take a position on an issue? Did someone request information? Is there some unsatisfactory situation that needs to be remedied by communicating with your audience? What specifically is unsatisfactory about it? Consider your audience.  For example
  • A potential client lacks sufficient information on whether the solution I have proposed to solve the client’s problem will be feasible, affordable, and effective.
  • My instructor lacks sufficient examples of my written work to assign a grade for how well I met the course learning objectives. 
• Establish a Goal: consider your purpose in writing. What do you want your reader to do, think, or know? Do you want your reader to make a decision? Change their opinion or behaviour? Follow a course of action? What is your desired outcome? And what form and style of communication will best lead to that outcome?  For example
  • Provide the client with enough information, in an effective and readable format, to make a decision (ideally, to hire you to build the solution for the problem).
    
  • Provide my instructor with samples of my writing that demonstrate my achievement of the course learning objectives (provide relevant and complete  information in a professionally appropriate format, using evidence-based argument; earn an A+ grade on the assignment.)
• Define Objectives: consider the specifics of your message and your audience to determine what criteria you should meet. What form should it take? What content elements will you need to include? What kind of research will be required? What information does your audience want/need? What do they already know?
  • Review the client’s RFP to see what specific objectives it lists and how your proposal will be assessed.
  • Review the Assignment Description and Grading Rubric for your assignment to determine specific requirements and objectives that your instructor will use to evaluate your work.
    
• Identify Constraints: what are the pass/fail conditions of this document?  Consider your rhetorical situation. What conditions exist that present barriers or challenges to communication? How can you address them? For example,
  • how much time is your audience willing to spend on this? How long can you make your document or presentation? (word length/time limit)
  • What format and style do they require? Is there a Style Guide you must follow? A template you can use?
  • How much time do you have to create it?  Do you have a deadline? (due date)
  • Are there requirements for using sources? (academic integrity rules)

Keep in mind that the document you produce is evaluated in terms of how well it responds to the “problem” — that is, how well it meets the overall goal and demonstrates achievement of specific objectives while abiding by constraints.

Media Attributionss

• Figure 1.1.1 NASA design process by NASA STEM Engagement. Used for educational and non-commercial purposes.

Every genre of writing has unique characteristics and rules, called conventions, that help readers classify a document as belonging to a particular genre. This also applies to film and music. Think about the last movie you saw. What type of movie was it? What about that movie gave you that impression? Did the characters wear Stetson hats, ride horses, and carry guns? Did they fly in space ships, encounter alien beings, and use futuristic technology? Those elements are typical conventions of Western and Science Fiction genres.

Non-fiction is a category that can be broken into various genres. The main genres that are relevant to us are journalism (newspaper writing), academic writing (written by scholars and published in peer reviewed academic journals or books), and technical writing. Before we get into the specific conventions that characterize technical writing, take a moment to think back to your academic writing course and list some conventions typical of journalism (popular press) and academic writing in Table 1.1.1.

Like journalism and scholarly writing, technical writing also has distinct features that readers expect to see in documents that fall within this genre. These include (a) use of headings to organize information into coherent sections, (b) use of lists to present information concisely, (c) use of figures and tables to present data and information visually, and (d) use of visual design to enhance readability (all of these topics are covered in Chapter 3: Document Design). These conventions are connected to the main purposes of technical writing, which include communicating the following:

• Technical or specialized information in an accessible and usable ways
• Clear instructions on how to do something in a clear manner
• Information that advances the goals of the company or organization.

Technical documentation is intended to communicate information to the people who need it in a way that is clear and easy to read, at the right time to help make decisions and to support productivity. Designing technical communication is like designing any other product for an intended user:  the ultimate goal is to make it “user friendly.”

Key words here are accessible, usable, clear, goal-oriented, effective, and reader-centred.  The characteristics of technical writing support these goals and concepts.

If we filled in Table 1.1.1 with typical characteristics of technical writing, it might look something like Table 1.1.2:

Use this practice activity to test your understanding.

It is common knowledge in the workplace that no one really wants to read what you write, and even if they want to or have to read it, they will likely not read all of it. So how do you get your reader to understand what you need quickly and efficiently? Start by doing a detailed Task and Audience Analysis — make sure you understand the “rhetorical situation.” Before you begin drafting a document, determine the needs of your rhetorical situation (See Figure 1.3.1).

Figure 1.3.1 The Rhetorical Situation.

The “rhetorical situation” is a term used to describe the components of any situation in which you may want to communicate, whether in written or oral form. To define a “rhetorical situation,” ask yourself this question:  “who is talking to whom about what, how, and why?” There are five main components:

• Purpose
• Writer
• Audience
• Message
• Context/Culture

PURPOSE refers to the why you are writing. Determining your purpose requires that you engage in Task Analysis — that is, determine what you hope to accomplish by writing this document. Ask yourself what you hope the reader(s) will do/think/decide/ or how they will behave as a result of reading the text. There are three general purposes for communication in the workplace: 1) to create a record, 2) to give or request information, and 3) to persuade.

Within those general purposes, you will find a myriad of specific purposes. For example, your purpose may be to  propose an innovative solution to a specific problem. In this case, you want the reader to agree to explore the idea further, or approve funding for further research and development, which would fall under the general purpose of writing to persuade.

WRITER refers to you, the writer/creator/designer of the communication. It is important to examine your own motivation for writing and any biases, past experiences, and knowledge you bring to the writing situation. These elements will influence how you craft the message, whether positively or negatively. This examination should also include your role within the organization, as well as your position relative to your target audience.

AUDIENCE refers to your readers/listeners/viewers/users. Audience Analysis is possibly the most critical part of understanding the rhetorical situation.  Consider Figure 1.3.2 below. Is your audience internal (within your company) or external (such as clients, suppliers, customers, other stakeholders)? Are they lateral to you (at the same position or level), upstream from you (management), or downstream from you (employees, subordinates)? Who is the primary audience? Who are the secondary audiences? These questions, and others, help you to create an understanding of your audience that will help you craft a message that is designed to effectively communicate specifically to them.

Figure 1.3.2 Understanding your relationship to your audience.

Keep in mind that your different audiences will also have a specific purpose in reading your document. Consider what their various purposes might be, and how you can best help them achieve their purpose. Considering what they are expected to do with the information you provide will help you craft your message effectively. Consider also that technical writing often has a long “life-span” – a document you write today could be filed away and reviewed months or even years down the road. Consider the needs of that audience as well.

Some companies develop audience profiles to help guide their communications. This is a good exercise whenever you have something to communicate, especially if the information is complex. Here are some questions to consider as part of the audience profile:

MESSAGE refers to what information you want to communicate. This is the content of your document. It should be aligned to your purpose and targeted to your audience. While it is important to carefully choose what content your audience needs, it is equally critical to cut out content that your audience does not need or want. “Time is money” may be a tired old cliché, but it is important to avoid wasting your audience’s time with information that is unnecessary or irrelevant to them. Your message should be professional, and expressed in an appropriate tone for the audience, purpose, and context. We will discuss aspects of using a professional style and tone in crafting your message more in Chapter 2.

CONTEXT refers to the situation that creates the need for the writing. In other words, what has happened or needs to happen that creates the need for communication? The context is influenced by timing, location, current events, and culture, which can be organizational or social. Ignoring the context for your communication could result in awkward situations, or possibly offensive ones. It will almost certainly impact your ability to clearly convey your message to your audience.

Consider the subtle (and not so subtle) similarities and differences in the rhetorical situation when you offer feedback on Course Experience Surveys vs when you evaluate an instructor on Ratemyprofessor.com.

H5P Instructions: You are writing up various documents related to your current research project on rising sea levels. Think about what type of information would interest which audience. In this activity, some of this information may be of interest to more than one group, but choose the most appropriate audience for the information you are presenting. Also reflect on how the information might be presented differently to multiple audiences. There are 10 questions.

Media Attributions

• Figure 1.3.1 The Rhetorical Situation by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

No one knows exactly how much poor communication costs business, industry and government each year, but estimates suggest billions.  In fact, a recent estimate claims that the cost in the U.S. alone are close to $4 billion annually! Poorly-worded or inefficient emails, careless reading or listening to instructions, documents that go unread due to poor design, hastily presenting inaccurate information, sloppy proofreading — all of these examples result in inevitable costs. The problem is that these costs aren’t usually included on the corporate balance sheet at the end of each year, so often the problem remains unsolved.

You may have seen the Project Management Tree Cartoon before (Figure 1.4.1); it has been used and adapted widely to illustrate the perils of poor communication during a project.

Figure 1.4.1 Project Management Tree Swing Cartoon. [Click to see image full size]

The waste caused by imprecisely worded regulations or instructions, confusing emails, long-winded memos, ambiguously written contracts, and other examples of poor communication is not as easily identified as the losses caused by a bridge collapse or a flood. But the losses are just as real—in reduced productivity, inefficiency, and lost business. In more personal terms, the losses are measured in wasted time, work, money, and ultimately, professional recognition. In extreme cases, losses can be measured in property damage, injuries, and even deaths.

The following “case studies” show how poor communications can have real world costs and consequences. For example, consider the “Comma Quirk” in the Rogers Contract that cost $2 million.  A small error in spelling a company name cost £8.8 million.  Examine Tufte’s discussion [PDF] of the failed PowerPoint presentation that attempted to prevent the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster. The failure of project managers and engineers to communicate effectively resulted in the deadly Hyatt Regency walkway collapse.  The case studies below offer a few more examples that might be less extreme, but much more common.

In small groups, examine each “case” and determine the following:

1. Define the rhetorical situation: Who is communicating to whom about what, how, and why? What was the goal of the communication in each case?
2. Identify the communication error (poor task or audience analysis? Use of inappropriate language or style? Poor organization or formatting of information? Other?)
3. Explain what costs/losses were incurred by this problem.
4. Identify possible solutions or strategies that would have prevented the problem, and what benefits would be derived from implementing solutions or preventing the problem.

Present your findings in a brief, informal presentation to the class.

Exercises adapted from T.M Georges’ Analytical Writing for Science and Technology.

H5P Instructions: Before you attempt the case studies on your own. Let’s work through Case 2: The Unaccepted Current Regulator Proposal as an H5P activity. Read through the case and then answer the following Quiz set.

Media Attributions

• Figure 1.4.1 The Project Management Tree Cartoon by The Project Cartoon is licensed under a CC BY 3.0 Unported licence.

Writing can be conceptualized as writer-centred or reader-centred. Things like diaries and journals are primarily writer-centred, in that they are written for the benefit of the writer. Your schoolwork may also have been somewhat writer-centred, in that often your goal was to “show what you know” and thereby “get a good grade.” Technical communications require that you shift this mindset and write for the benefit of your reader—or design the content and structure of your communication for your “user.” This mindset should be informed by an understanding of your audience.  Use these guidelines and ask yourself the following questions:

• Who is my target audience? Are they internal or external readers? Upstream, downstream or lateral from you? Do I have multiple readers?
• What is their perspectives on the topic, on me, and on the document I will write? What are they expecting to do with the document? What is the document meant to accomplish? Why has it been requested? What is my role and relationship to my readers? What does the reader need to know? Already know? What does my reader NOT need to have explained?
• What is my goal or purpose in writing to these readers? What am I trying to communicate? What do I want them to do as a result of reading this document? How can I plan the content to meet my readers’ needs?
• What is my reader’s goal? Why does this audience want or need to read this document?

Getting a clear understanding of your audience is important in communicating effectively. It also enables you to imagine your audience as you write and revise. Keep asking yourself whether what you have said would be clear to your audience. How could you say it better?

Professional Tone

“Tone” refers to the attitude that a document conveys towards the topic and/or the reader. You have likely read something that sounded angry, or optimistic, or humorous, or cynical, or enthusiastic. These words characterize the tone.  Technical communication tends to avoid displaying an obvious emotion, and instead strives for a neutral tone.

Tone is created through word choice (diction), word order (syntax), sentence construction, and viewpoint. Consider a piece of academic writing that you may have read. It creates a formal tone through its use of specialized terminology, sophisticated vocabulary, complex sentence structures, and third person voice. This style suits the genre because it is directed at experts and scholars in the field, and seeks to convey complex information densely and objectively, with an emphasis on reason, logic, and evidence.

Now consider a piece of business writing that you may have read. The tone may be sightly less formal but not colloquial. The language is direct and plain, and the sentences are shorter and more straightforward. It may make use of the second person (“you”). This style suits business writing because it is directed at colleagues, management, or clients who are seeking information clearly and quickly and who may need to take action on it.

Writing Constructively

Striking the appropriate tone involves understanding your purpose, context, and audience. It also involves an understanding that workplaces are often hierarchical, and that cooperation and teamwork are required. Therefore, it is important to consider how you want your reader to feel, and what may make your reader feel that way. Your goal is to write constructively, which means to use positive phrasing to convey your message to your reader. Table 2.1.1 illustrates the differences between destructive/negative and constructive/positive feelings the reader may experience as a result of the tone used in a document.

Considering how your reader may feel after reading your document is an important part of revision. Did your tone come across like you hoped it would? Could it be misconstrued? Often this is where peer reviewing can be helpful. Asking a colleague to review your document before sending it off to its intended audience is a common professional practice.

Sometimes, you will need to communicate information that is unpleasant, such as delivering bad news or rejecting a request. Communicating constructively is possible—and arguably even more important—in these situations. Regardless of message, how can you ensure you are communicating constructively?

• Adopt an adult-to-adult approach: that is to say, avoid talking down to your reader in a patronizing tone, and likewise avoid sounding petulant or unwilling to take responsibility. Aim to communicate respectfully, responsibly, confidently, and cooperatively — as one responsible adult to another.
• Be courteous:  focus on the reader as much as possible. Use “you” unless it results in blaming (one effective use of passive verbs is to avoid assigning blame:  “mistakes were made”). Use traditionally accepted forms of courtesy and politeness. Use gender-neutral phrasing and plural forms, unless you are referring to a specific person and you know their gender.
• Focus on the positive:  emphasize what you can do rather than what you can’t. Try to avoid negative wording and phrasing (no, not, never, none, isn’t, can’t, don’t, etc.). Focus on what can be improved.
• Be genuine:  apologize if you have made a mistake. Take responsibility and promise to do better. Be authentic in your expression. Avoid sounding like marketing material (ad-speak). Make reasonable claims that can be backed with evidence.

Consider the following perspectives:

Use this H5P activity to practice identifying writer-centred and reader-centred perspectives.

Use this H5P activity to practice identifying constructive and negative phrasing.

H5P Instructions: Read the following the email from Jake Burns and his boss, J. Parson. Jake has been working at ABC Company for approximately a month now. His position is a new one and therefore they do not have a permanent space for him. He has only met his boss, Ms. Parson, twice and they do not know each other well.When you read the email, think about the tone, the proper way to address people, and what would be respectful language to use with your employer. Also look at punctuation and capitalization and how those may influence the tone of the email. Consider what information needs to be shared and how the email conveys that. Identify 8 errors in these areas that you would revise in this email.

So far we have discussed the importance of writing with the reader in mind; of striking the right tone for your audience, message, and purpose; of writing constructively; and of writing persuasively. Now we move onto the actual writing itself.  Two key characteristics of professional technical communication are that it is precise and concise. This precision and concision must be evident at all levels, from the overall document, to paragraphing, to sentence structure to word choice, and even to punctuation. Every word or phrase should have a distinct and useful purpose.  If it doesn’t, cut it or revise.

The 7 Cs of Professional Writing

The 7 C’s are simply seven words that begin with C that characterize strong professional style. Applying the 7 C’s of professional communication will result in writing that is

• Clear
• Coherent
• Concise
• Concrete
• Correct
• Complete
• Courteous.

CLEAR writing involves knowing what you want to say before you say it because often a lack of clarity comes from unclear thinking or poor planning; this, unfortunately, leads to confused or annoyed readers. Clear writing conveys the purpose of the document immediately to the reader; it matches vocabulary to the audience, avoiding jargon and unnecessary technical or obscure language while at the same time being precise. In clarifying your ideas, ensure that each sentence conveys one idea, and that each paragraph thoroughly develops one unified concept.

COHERENT writing ensures that the reader can easily follow your ideas and your train of thought. One idea should lead logically into the next through the use of transitional words and phrases, structural markers, planned repetition, sentences with clear subjects, headings that are clear, and effective and parallel lists. Writing that lacks coherence often sounds “choppy” and ideas seem disconnected or incomplete. Coherently connecting ideas is like building bridges between islands of thought so the reader can easily move from one idea to the next.

CONCISE writing uses the least words possible to convey the most meaning while still maintaining clarity. Avoid unnecessary padding, awkward phrasing, overuse of “to be” forms (is, are, was, were, am, be, being), long preposition strings, vagueness, unnecessary repetition and redundancy. Use active verbs whenever possible, and take the time to choose a single word rather than a long phrase or cliched expression. Think of your word count like a budget; be cost effective by making sure every word you choose does effective work for you.  Cut a word, save a buck! As William Zinsser asserts, “the secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components.”

CONCRETE writing involves using specific, precise language to paint a picture for your readers so that they can more easily understand your ideas. If you have to explain an abstract concept or idea, try to use examples, analogies, and precise language to illustrate it. Use measurable descriptors whenever possible; avoid vague terms like “big” or “good.” Try to get your readers to “see” your ideas by using specific terms and descriptions.

CORRECT writing uses standard English punctuation, sentence structure, usage, and grammar. Being correct also means providing accurate information, as well as using the right document type and form for the task.

COMPLETE writing includes all requested information and answers all relevant questions. The more concrete and specific you are, the more likely your document will be complete as well. Review your checklist of specifications before submitting your document to its intended reader.

COURTEOUS writing entails designing a reader-friendly, easy-to-read document; using tactful language and appropriate modes of addressing the audience; and avoiding potentially offensive terminology, usage, and tone. As we have discussed in an early section, without courtesy you cannot be constructive.

In some cases, some of these might come into conflict: what if being too concise results in a tone that sounds terse, or an idea that seems incomplete? Figure 2.2.1 illustrates one method of putting all the 7Cs together.

Figure 2.2.1 Putting all the 7Cs together [Image description]

Be mindful of the tradeoffs, and always give priority to being clear: writing that lacks clarity cannot be understood and therefore cannot achieve its purpose. Writing that adheres to the 7 C’s helps to establish your credibility as a technical professional.

H5P Instructions: Review and practice the 7 C’s of Professional Writing by taking this short quiz. There are 14 questions.

Sentence Variety and Length

While variety makes for interesting writing, too much of it can also reduce clarity and precision. Technical writing tends to use simple sentence structures more often than the other types. That said, simple does not necessarily mean “simplistic,” short, or lacking in density. Remember that in grammatical terms, simple just means that it has one main clause (one subject and one predicate). You can still convey quite a bit of concrete information in a simple sentence.

The other consideration for precise writing is length. Your sentences should vary in length just as they can vary in type. However, you want to avoid having too many long sentences because they take longer to read and are often more complex. That is appropriate in academic writing but less so in technical writing. The goal is to aim for an average of around 20 to 30 words per sentence. Reserve the short sentences for main points and use longer sentences for supporting points that clarify or explain cause and effect relationships. If you feel the sentence is too long, break it into two sentences. You do not want your reader to have to read a sentence twice to understand it. If you make compound or complex sentences, ensure that you use appropriate coordinating or subordinating strategies to make the relationship between clauses perfectly clear. See Appendix E to review specific information on simple, compound, and complex sentence structures.

Precise Wording

Technical writing is precise writing. Vague, overly general, hyperbolic or subjective/ambiguous terms are simply not appropriate in this genre. You do not want to choose words and phrasing that could be interpreted in more than one way. For example, if you asked someone to define what makes a “good dog,” you might get responses like “obedient, effective hunter/retriever, well-behaved, affectionate, loyal, therapeutic, goofy” and “all dogs are good!” Choose words that most precisely, concisely, and accurately convey the idea you want to convey. Below are some guidelines and examples to follow for using precise wording.

1. Replace Abstract Nouns with Verbs.

Verbs, more than nouns, help convey ideas concisely, so where possible, avoid using nouns derived from verbs. Often these abstract nouns end in –tion and –ment. See examples in the following chart.

2. Prefer Short Words to Long Words and Phrases.

The goal is to communicate directly and plainly so use short, direct words whenever possible. In other words, don’t use long words or phrases when short ones will do. Write to express, not impress.

3. Avoid Clichés.

Clichés are expressions that you have probably heard and used hundreds of times. They are over-used expressions that have largely lost their meaning and impact.

4. Avoid Cluttered Constructions.

This category includes redundancies, repetitions, and “there is/are” and “it is” constructions.

5. Use Accurate Wording.

Sometimes this requires more words instead of fewer, so do not sacrifice clarity for concision. Make sure your words convey the meaning you intend. Avoid using words that have several possible meanings; do not leave room for ambiguity or alternate interpretations of your ideas. Keep in mind that readers of technical writing tend to choose literal meanings, so avoid figurative language that might be confusing (for example, using the word “decent” to describe something you like or think is good). Separate facts from opinions by using phrases like “we recommend,” “we believe,” or “in our opinion.” Use consistent terminology rather than looking for synonyms that may be less precise.

Qualify statements that need qualifying, especially if there is possibility for misinterpretation. Do not overstate through the use of absolutes and intensifiers.  Avoid overusing intensifiers like “extremely,” and avoid absolutes like “never, always, all, none” as these are almost never accurate. Remember Obiwan Kenobi’s warning:

“Only a Sith deals in absolutes.”

We tend to overuse qualifiers and intensifiers, so below are some that you should be aware of and consider whether you are using them effectively.

Overused Intensifiers

• absolutely
• actually
• assuredly
• certainly
• clearly
• completely
• considerably
• definitely
• effectively
• extremely
• fundamentally
• drastically
• highly
• in fact
• incredibly
• inevitably
• indeed
• interestingly
• markedly
• naturally
• of course
• particularly
• significantly
• surely
• totally
• utterly
• very
• really
• remarkably
• tremendously

Overused Qualifiers

• apparently
• arguably
• basically
• essentially
• generally
• hopefully
• in effect
• in general
• kind of
• overall
• perhaps
• quite
• rather
• relatively
• seemingly
• somewhat
• sort of
• virtually

For a comprehensive list of words and phrases that should be used with caution, see Kim Blank’s “Wordiness, Wordiness, Wordiness List.” 

6. Prefer the Active Voice.

The active voice emphasizes the person/thing doing the action in a sentence. For example, The outfielder throws the ball. The subject, “outfielder” actively performs the action of the verb “throw.” The passive voice emphasizes the recipient of the action. In other words, something is being done to something by somebody: The ball was thrown (by the outfielder). Passive constructions are generally wordier and often leave out the person/thing doing the action.

While the passive voice has a place—particularly if you want to emphasize the receiver of an action as the subject of the sentence, or the action itself, or you want to avoid using first person—its overuse results in writing that is wordy, vague, and stuffy. When possible, use the active voice to convey who or what performs the action of the verb.

Use the following H5P activity to practice identifying sentences written in the active or passive voice.

Precise writing encapsulates many of the 7 C’s; it is clear, concise, concrete, and correct. But it is also accurate and active. To write precisely and apply the 7 C’s, it is important to look critically at your sentences, perhaps in a way you may not have done before. You need to consider the design of those sentences, from the words to the phrases to the clauses, to ensure that you are communicating your message effectively.

Image Descriptions

Figure 2.2.1 Putting all the 7Cs together

A priority list of the 7 Cs.

1. Clear: Plan ahead! Know your purpose and convey your ideas in a unified manner.
2. Coherent: Organize your thoughts in a logical, structured progression.
3. Concise: Budget your words wisely; ensure your writing contains only what’s necessary.
4. Concrete: Use specific and precise language, use measurable descriptors and avoid vague language.
5. Correct: Adhere to proper grammar, punctuation, and document structure.
6. Complete: Give all the important information and answer all relevant questions.
7. Courteous: Format so that the document is easy to read. Use appropriate and tactful language.

[Return to Figure 2.2.1]

Media Attributions

• Figure 2.2.1 Putting all the 7Cs together created by Alyssa Zicari and Jenna Hildemann; used with permission.

Much of the style advice given so far revolves around the importance of verbs. Think of your sentence as a machine, and the verb as the engine that makes the machine work. Like machines, sentences can function efficiently or inefficiently, and the use of a strong verb is one way to make them work effectively. Here are some key principles regarding the effective use of verbs in your sentences. While effective sentences may occasionally deviate from the suggestions in this list, try to follow these guidelines as often as possible:

• Keep the subject and the verb close together; avoid separating them with words or phrases that could create confusion
• Place the verb near the beginning of the sentence (and close to the subject)
• Maintain a high verb/word ratio in your sentence
• Prefer active verb constructions over passive ones
• Avoid “to be” verbs (am, is, are, was, were, being, been, be)
• Try to turn nominalizations (abstract nouns) back into verbs.

Use the verb strength chart in Table 2.4.1 as a guide to “elevate” weaker verbs (or words with implied action) in a sentence to stronger forms.

Part of the skill of using active verbs lies in choosing the verbs that precisely describes the action you want to convey. English speakers have become somewhat lazy in choosing a small selection of verbs most of the time (to be, to do, to get, to make, to have, to put); as a result, these often-used verbs have come to have so many possible meanings that they are almost meaningless. Try looking up “make” or “have” in the dictionary; you will see pages and pages of possible meanings! Whenever possible, avoid these bland verbs and use more precise, descriptive verbs, as indicated in Table 2.4.2.

For more detailed information on using signal verbs when introducing quotations, see Appendix C: Integrating Source Evidence into Your Writing.

Here is the exercise in a Word document for you to download and revise: Revision Exercise – Energy Drinks [Word doc]

After trying the exercise, click on the link below to compare your revision to effective revisions of this passage done by other students: Sample Revisions of Exercise 2.7 [Word doc]

Table 2.4.3 sums up many key characteristics of effective professional style that you should try to avoid (poor style) and implement (effective style) while writing technical documents.

All documents have a purpose—to persuade, to inform, to instruct, to entertain—but the first and foremost purpose of any document is to be read. Choosing effective document design enhances the readability or usability of your document so that the target audience is more likely to get the message you want them to receive, and your document is more likely to achieve your intended purpose.

Choose document design elements that make your document “user friendly” for the target audience. Keep in mind that people do not read technical writing for pleasure; they read it because they have to; it’s part of their job. And since “time is money,” the longer it takes to read the document, the higher the “cost.” Your job as the document designer is to make their reading process as easy, clear, useful and efficient as possible by using all the tools at your disposal.

Designing a document is like designing anything else:  you must define your purpose (the goals and objectives you hope your document achieves, as well as the constraints — such as word count and format — that you must abide by), understand your audience (who will read this document and why), and choose design features that will best achieve your purpose and best suite the target audience. In essence, you must understand the Rhetorical Situation (see 1.3 Understanding the Rhetorical Situation) in which you find yourself: Who is communicating with whom about what and why? What kind of document design and formatting can help you most effectively convey the desired message to that audience? You want to use the most effective rhetorical strategies at your disposal; document design is one of those strategies.

Genres and Conventions

As you learned in previous writing classes, readers in different contexts expect different textual features, depending on the type of document they are reading and their purpose. A reader of an online editorial can expect strongly worded arguments that may rely on inflammatory emotional language, but not be backed up with much empirical evidence;  we do not expect an online editorial to cite reliable sources in a scholarly format. In contrast, an academic reader expects the opposite: neutral, unemotional language, and plenty of empirical evidence to logically and validly support claims, with sources cited and documented in an appropriately academic bibliographical formats. These are some of the conventional expectations of the genres.

It’s not only the content and rhetorical strategies that have differing conventions; documents also differ in how they are designed and formatted. All genres of writing adhere to certain conventions, in terms of content, the style of language used to express that content, and how the content is presented visually. If you look at an online news article (or an article in an actual newspaper), you will often notice consistent formatting features.

It is important for writers to understand the conventions of the genre in which they are writing. Conventions are the “rules” or expectations that readers/viewers have for that particular genre or medium. If you do not follow the target readers’ expectations, you run the risk of confusing them—or worse, damaging your credibility—and therefore not effectively conveying your message and fulfilling your purpose. Think of document design as “visual rhetoric.”  Make document design choices that best conform to the expectations of the genre and audience, and that most effectively convey the message you want to send.

Style Guides and Templates

In many writing contexts, style guides and templates will be available. Style guides dictate the general rules and guidelines that should be followed; templates offer specific content and formatting requirements for specific kinds of documents. Academic publishers make style guides available to prospective authors so that they know how to properly write and format documents they submit for publication. Newspapers, academic journals, organizations, and businesses often have their own “in house” style that must be followed by all writers within that organization. A company may have specific templates, for example, a Memo template, that all employees must follow, in order to ensure consistency of messaging.

You likely had a style guide to help you format your written assignments for your Academic Writing class, and in Science classes, you likely had a template to help you organize Lab Reports.

Examine the formatting of academic writing in the H5P interaction below. Reflect on some of the characteristics that adhere to academic writing format requirements that you are familiar with. Do not worry about reading the text, simply examine the formatting. Click on the hotspots (designated by the + signs) for more information.

Now look at the technical writing in the H5P interaction below. What differences do you notice? Reflect on some of the features that differ from the academic writing sample above. Consider why typical readers of technical writing would find these desirable. Which document would you rather read?

Figure 3.1.1 Page Excerpt from an Academic Essay

Now examine the document in Figure 3.1.2. What differences do you notice? List some of the features that differ from the academic writing sample above. Consider why typical readers of technical writing would find these features desirable. Which document would you rather read?

Figure 3.1.2 Excerpt from a Technical Report

Technical writing makes use of several typical design features to organize information efficiently and enhance readability. These include headings, lists, figures, and tables, as well as strategic use of passive space around all of these features and text. Each company, publisher, or organization may have its own style guide to which all writers within that organization, or those wishing to contribute written material, must adhere. All work written for ENGR 120 and 240 should adhere to the ENGR 120/240 style guide. An excerpt from this style guide, listing the main formatting requirements for all assignments, is presented below.

The rest of this chapter offers specific and detailed information on how and why technical writers use the following document design features:

1. Headings: headings and subheadings provide a clearly visible organization and structure that allows readers to read selectively and preview information. There are several guidelines for font style, size and colour to help design headings effectively.
2. Lists: lists provide a way to concisely and efficiently convey information and emphasize ideas. There are several kinds of lists, each used for specific purposes.
3. Figures and Tables: visual representations of data and concepts offer a reader a break from sentence and paragraphs, and provide additional ways to understand information.
4. Passive Space: leaving blank spaces strategically on the page (around lists, figures, and headings, and between paragraphs) helps the reader to absorb the information in the “active” space more effectively, and helps create a visually appealing look.

** NOTE: Traditionally, serif fonts have been preferred for body text as they were considered more “readable” in paragraph form, especially in print media. However, recent research has suggested that the serif fonts are less readable for people who have visual impairments or disabilities related to perceiving written text.  In addition, sans serif fonts are considered more readable on a screen. This is one reason why Microsoft Word has changed its default body font from Cambria or Times New Roman to Calibri, which is a sans serif font. It is wise to check with the intended audience to see which is preferred.

Media Attributions

• Figure 3.1.1 Page Excerpt from an Academic Essay by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.
• Figure 3.1.2 Excerpt from a Technical Report by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

Headings are standard features of technical documents that serve several important functions:

• Provide organizational overview of the document
• Show logical development of ideas
• Show hierarchical relationship of ideas (headings, sub-headings)
• Allow the reader to scan and read selectively
• Increase readability of the document by providing breaks and white space.

Effective headings use concrete, descriptive language to tell the reader what to expect from the content of each section. Avoid “function” headings when writing technical reports. Function headings are used in documents that have consistent structures, such as science lab reports, when each section must fulfill a particular function. For example,

1. Introduction
2. Materials
3. Procedure/Methodology
4. Data/Results
5. Discussion/Conclusions
6. References

Technical reports are usually not so strictly organized or predictable.  Readers will find it much more helpful if headings concretely describe the content of each section rather than the function.

Note the differences in the two Tables of Contents in Figure 3.2.1, each generated automatically from headings within their respective documents. Which one gives a clear idea of the content of the report?

Figure 3.2.1 Function-based vs Descriptive Headings. [Image description]

General Principles for Designing Headings

When designing the headings in your document, keep in mind these general principles:

• Hierarchical Relationship of Ideas: use font size, boldness, typography and color to indicate the relative importance of ideas and how they inter-connect. In general, first level headings are larger and bolder than second and subsequent level headings.
• Consistency: if you use headings, every section must have a heading. Make sure your headings at each level are consistent in design (font, size, color, indentation, etc.) Use the STYLES function in Word to help design and maintain effective and consistent headings throughout your document. Use consistent, parallel phrasing as well.
• Readability: leave passive space above and below headings. There should always be slightly more space above the heading than below it. As a general guideline, use 2-4 headings per page in short reports. Avoid overusing headings.
• Specificity: use descriptive headings that inform the reader of the content of each section. Avoid vague headings, and avoid using too many headings. Headings may use a numeric system, if there are many sub-sections. According the Engineering Work Term Report Guideline [PDF], headings may be numbered using Arabic numerals only—not Roman Numerals or letters.

The examples below illustrate the use of heading sizes and font types, with numbered headings and without, to show the relationship of ideas within the report. The headings were created using the Styles option in Word.

Using the Styles function in Word, rather than simply making text larger or bold manually, offers you may advantages.  For example, the algorithm created using Styles allows you to

• Create and automatic table of contents from your headings and sub-headings
• Create bookmarks in a .pdf document
• Use Word’s Navigation Pane
• Use Words’ “outline” feature when drafting your document
• Enable Screen Reading software to identify your heading hierarchy

Enabling screen reader software helps make your documents more accessible. Creating an automatic table of contents will save you tons of time!  In addition, the TOC will automatically update as you revise your document and add sections, which will help when you are collaborating with other writers.  Similarly, you can also create an automatic Table of Figures if you use the Caption function. Learning how to use the Styles formatting tool will make your report writing much easier, and will allow you combine sections written by different team members easily and effectively. Use the tutorials in Word, or search for current online video tutorials showing how to use these tools.

Review the Headings PowerPoint [PPTX].

Image Descriptions

Figure 3.2.1 Function-based vs Descriptive Headings

Function-based headings:

• Introduction
• Problem Definition
• Proposed Solution
• Benefits
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
• References
• Table 1
• Figure 1.

Descriptive headings:

• Ski Lift Safety Issues
• Deropement Problems in Tow Lifts
• Proposed Rope Catcher Solution
• Benefits of Implementation
• Resolving the Safety Issues
• Recommendation
• References.
• Table 1. Cost breakdown for one tower installation.
• Figure 1. Proposed Retainment Device

[Return to Figure 3.2.1]

Media Attributions

• Figure 3.1.1 Page Excerpt from an Academic Essay by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

Lists, when used correctly, can be a technical writer’s—and reader’s—best friend. Lists allow you to emphasize important ideas. They also increase the readability of text by simplifying long sentences or paragraphs and adding aesthetic passive space to make reading more pleasant. However, using the wrong kind of list or poorly formatting a list can create confusion rather than enhance readability. Therefore, it is important to understand the various types of lists and how and why to use them.

Each kind of list is suited for specific purposes. All lists must conform to a set of rules of construction and formatting. Learning to use the Paragraph formatting tool in Word (see Figure 3.3.1) is crucial to designing effective lists.

Figure 3.3.1 Screenshot of Paragraph tools in Word 2010; you can auto-create lists using the top left buttons.

NOTE: If you are making lists by hitting ENTER then TAB and then a dash, you are doing it wrong, and this will make future editing and maintaining readability very difficult if not impossible. Especially when writing documents collaboratively that will need extensive revision and editing, you must make sure to use the correct formatting tools.

Common Types of Lists

Just as bar graphs serve a different purpose than pie charts, different kinds of lists also serve different purposes. This section will describe when and how to use the following five commonly used types of lists:

• Bullet Lists: use when order of listed items is not important
• Numbered Lists: use when order is important, such as steps in instructions
• In-sentence Lists: use when you want to maintain sentence structure and paragraphing, and have a short list (2-4 items)
• Labeled Lists: use when the listed items require some explanation or amplification (like this one)
• Nested Lists: use when listed items have sub-lists (list within a list).

Bullet Lists

Bullet lists are the most commonly used kind of list. They are effective when

• You want to emphasize two or more items
• You can place the items in any order (no particular order is required)
• You want to add white space to your document to enhance readability.

Bullet list items should generally be short (a word or a phrase). If you find your bulleted items are longer than this, consider using another kind of list, such as a labeled list or a nested list.

Numbered Lists

Use numbered lists when the order of the listed items is important and ideas must be expressed in chronological order. For example, use a numbered list when you must enumerate a series of steps in instructions, or when you are introducing ideas that will be discussed in a certain order in the following text. If you have a list of more than 8 items, consider breaking up the list in two or more stages or categories (Steps in Stage 1, Steps in Stage 2, etc.).

NOTE:  The 4 steps in the sample numbered list each begin with a verb (check, review, edit, and proofread), indicating what the reader should do, and the numbers indicate the order in which these steps should be performed.

In-Sentence Lists

Use in-sentence lists when you want to (a) keep paragraph style, (b) to avoid having too many lists on one page, and (c) when the list items are relatively short and can be expressed in a sentence clearly without creating a run-on. The previous sentence is an example of an in-sentence list. Note that a bracketed, lower-case letter introduces each listed item.

Typically, in-sentence lists have 2-4 items. Generally avoid putting more than 4 items in this kind of list (unless they are very short), or your sentence might become difficult to read.

Labeled Lists

Use a labeled list when you are listing items that need further explanation. These can be bulleted or numbered. Start the list item with the word or term (the “label”), placed in italics (or bold) and followed by a colon. After the colon, write the explanation or amplification of the term or concept in normal body text.

Make sure the label portions (before the colon) are phrased consistently and either italicized or bolded for emphasis; try to make the explanations that follow roughly equal in length and detail.

Nested Lists

A “nested” list is a list-within-a-list or a list with sub-listed items. These can be useful for avoiding overly long bullet lists by categorizing items into sub-lists. Note the long bullet list on the left does not effectively categorize items, so emphasis is lost. The Nested List is more effective.

This is not an exhaustive list of the kinds of lists you may run across in your technical reading. These are simply the most common kinds of lists, and ones you should be able to identify and use effectively in your technical writing assignments to enhance readability.

A Note on Punctuating the End of List Items

Conventions for punctuating list items vary depending on the context. Legal writing tends to use more punctuation than technical writing (list items often end in semicolons and the final item is introduced by an “and”). In technical documents, because this style favors simplicity, you typically place a period only after the final item in your list. If each listed item has complete sentences within it, then you will place a period at the end of each list item. If you have a simple bullet list, you may omit the final period.

Integrating Lists into Body Text

Just as there are rules for constructing lists, there are rules for how to incorporate them into your text. Most importantly, a list must be introduced by a lead-in sentence (or clause) that contains both a subject and a verb. Technical writers often use the expression “the following” somewhere in the lead-in sentence to clearly indicate that a list of items will follow.

If the lead-in is a complete sentence (ie. it could end in a period), it should end in a colon that introduces the listed items. If the sentence is not a complete thought, (ie. you could not put a period there) the lead-in should not end in any punctuation, and each listed item must be able to grammatically complete the lead-in sentence.

GRAMMAR TIP: One of the most common errors found in technical reports has to do with the introduction of lists and how these are punctuated. Here are some additional examples of how—and how NOT—to introduce lists.

Don’t use a colon before a list unless the introduction to the list is a complete thought, that is, an independent clause. Remember this rule: if you can’t put a period there, then you can’t put a colon there.

In some cases, a list might not be helpful and instead might just over-complicate your document. In such cases, list your ideas in sentence form, within the paragraph, as in the final panda example below. A page with too many lists looks like an outline instead of a coherently expressed series of ideas.

Example: Pandas have black and white fur, eat a vegetarian diet, and can solve difficult problems.

EXERCISE 3.4 When to use a colon with a list.

Review the types of lists with this interaction.

EXERCISE 3.5 Identify the types of lists below

Review the Lists [PPTX].

Media Attributions

• Figure 3.3.1 Screenshot of Paragraph tools in Word 2010; you can auto-create lists using the top left buttons by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

Visual elements such as graphs, charts, tables, photographs, diagrams, and maps capture your readers’ attention and help them to understand your ideas more fully. They are like the illustrations that help tell the story. These visuals help to augment your written ideas and simplify complicated textual descriptions. They can help the reader understand a complicated process or visualize trends in the data. The key concept to remember here is that visuals clarify, illustrate, and augment your written text; they are not a replacement for written text. The old adage, “a picture is worth a thousand words” does not hold true in technical writing, but adding visuals may save you a hundred words or so of additional explanation and clarification. If you have visual elements in your document, they must be based on and supplement your written content. Throwing in “gratuitous graphics” just to decorate or take up space can confuse your reader.

It is important to choose the right kind of visual to convey the story you want your reader to understand. If visuals are poorly chosen or poorly designed for the task, they can actually confuse the reader and have negative consequences. For example, it’s very likely that the first thing you noticed when you opened this page was the image above. Did you wonder why is it there? Has it distracted you?

Conventions for Integrating Visuals in your Document

Each style of visual has its own conventions that you will recognize after you have seen enough of them. In addition, different publications have different style guides that dictate the specific of how to format and integrate visual elements.  In general, however, whenever you integrate any kind of visual, you should adhere to five key rules.

In addition, visual elements should also be surrounded with sufficient passive space to emphasize the image and enhance its readability. If copying and pasting an image, make sure all elements are clear and the print size is readable. A visual that has been shrunk down to an unreadable size does not help the reader understand your ideas.  If at all possible, try to orient the visual image in the same direction as the body text.

Examine Figure 3.4.1 below. Do you understand what information it conveys? What is missing?

Figure 3.4.1 [Image Description]

If you look carefully, you might be able to guess what story this graph is telling. However, the lack of a descriptive caption and labelling of axes makes it impossible to know for sure. Compare it to Figure 3.4.2 below.

Figure 3.4.2 Water Consumption in Edmonton during the 2010 Gold Medal Hockey Game. [Image description]

Figure 3.4.2 has a numbered caption (which I have just referred to in my paragraph), a descriptive title, and it has properly labelled x and y axes and legends. It also cites the source the graph was retrieved from in the caption using an in-text citation, which is linked to a full reference below.  The original image has not been distorted in any way. Thus, it follows the five key rules listed above.

In addition to those five general rules, there are specific guidelines for implementing them. These are outlined in detail in the Faculty of Engineering Co-op Work Term Report Guideline [PDF].

Specific Guidelines for Integrating Graphics

Terminology

Visual elements are referred to as either Tables or Figures. Tables are made up of rows and columns and the cells usually have numbers in them (but may also have words or images). Figures refer to any visual elements—graphs, charts, diagrams, photos, etc.—that are not Tables. They may be included in the main sections of the report, or if they contain supplemental material they may be contained in an appendix. Try to ensure that figures and tables are not broken over two pages. Tables that require a full page might be best put in an appendix.

Labeling Tables and Figures

Tables and figures must all be labeled with numbered captions that clearly identify and describe them.  Figure captions are generally placed below the figures, while table captions must be placed above the tables. This is because we generally read tables from the top down, and therefore want to see the caption at the top. Figures are not always read top down. When you open a page and see a figure, the first thing you want to know is “what is that?” The caption below it should immediately identify what the figure represents for the reader.  If you choose to place figure captions above the figures, do so consistently throughout your document.

Use the following conventions to assist the reader in understanding your graphics:

• Numbering:  Table and Figures are numbered sequentially, but separately

e.g. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure 2, Table 3, etc.

• Captioning: After the Figure or Table number, add a descriptive caption that clearly indicate what the figure or table illustrates without having to read anything else on the page.

There are two systems for numbering figures and tables within your document:

• Simple Consecutive Numbering: All figures and tables are numbered consecutively (Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, Table 1, Table 2, Table, 3 etc.) throughout the document regardless of which section they are in.
• Section-based Numbering: Within each section, figures and tables may be numbered sequentially through each section (e.g. Table 1.1 refers to the first table in section 1, Table 2.4 refers to the fourth table in section 2).

If a large number of illustrations are presented, the latter option is the better choice. This can become confusing, however, when using sub-sections.

If the table or figure that you present in your report was not created by you, but comes from other sources, you must include a reference for the original source in your caption: e.g.: Figure 1. Network Design [3]. You must ensure that all figures and tables represent data accurately and ethically, and that they do not distort data to create bias.

Using the Insert → Caption … function will allow Word to keep track of the Figure and Table numbering for you, and allow you to auto-create a List of Figures and Tables at the beginning of your document.

If you don’t use the Insert Caption function, then you should manually change the font of your captions to distinguish them from body text.  Caption font is usually slightly smaller than body font and is often italicized.  The numbered portion is often bolded in both the caption and in the in-paragraph reference to the figure or table.

Referring to Tables and Figures in your Text

Any figures or tables you use in your document must be discussed in your text. Use the following guidelines when discussing and referring to tables and figures:

• Place the table/figure close to where it is first referred to in the text (preferably immediately below the paragraph in which it is first mentioned).
• Refer to tables and figures in your text by their numbers, not their placement in the text. E.g, “See Figure 9 for a detailed schematic” (not “see the figure below”); “the test results are summarized in Table 1.”
• When referring to a figure or table in your body text, it is helpful to place the reference in bold font.

Selecting the Right Visual

Table 3.1.1 lists common kinds of visual elements used in technical writing, along with their general purpose or description (for a more detailed discussion of how and when to use these kinds of visuals, see Graves and Graves. Notice the “box head” on the top and “stubs” on the left are bolded and centred to enhance readability. Tables that have text in the cells instead of numbers can also be referred to as figures. Thus, Table 3.1.1 could have been captioned as Figure 3.7 instead.

For more information on how to format a long report, see the Faculty of Engineering’s “Co-op Work Term Report Guidelines.” 

Practice your knowledge of figures and tables using this H5P interaction.

Additional Resources

Review the Visuals – Tables and Figures in Reports[PPTX].

For a look at how professionals can animate data, check out Hans Rosling’s “The Joy of Stats” on YouTube [Online].

Image Descriptions

Figure 3.4.1 image description

A graph with no figure number or caption and no x or y axis labels, so it is difficult to determine what point it is trying to make. It shows something rising and falling during a hockey game. This thing spikes at the end of each period and drops dramatically when Canada wins.

[Return to Figure 3.4.1]

Figure 3.4.2 Water Consumption in Edmonton during the 2010 Gold Medal Hockey Game.

A graph charting water consumption in Edmonton during the 2010 Gold Medal Hockey Game. The graphs shows spikes in water consumption at the end of each period, followed by very low usage periods, especially near the end of the 3rd period, and between the end of the game and the medal ceremony. It also has a line depicting water usage the previous day, which was fairly steady throughout the day.

[Return to Figure 3.4.2]

Media Attributions

• Fig. 3.4.1; 3.4.2. EPCOR, Edmonton’s Water Utility. “Water Consumption in Edmonton during 2010 Gold Medal hockey game”. This data is credited to EPCOR. Publication details of the originating report are unavailable. For noncommercial, educational use only.

Anything that you write is designed to be read. That is its first and foremost purpose. Thus, increasing readability means increasing the functionality of your document in terms of both content and document design—making it “user friendly.” If your document is difficult to read because vocabulary, sentence structure, paragraphing, organization, or formatting is unclear, your reader will likely stop reading.

The Revision Checklist below offers a step-by-step process for revising your document to achieve a readable style. It incorporates key information fromChapter 2: Professional Style and Chapter 3: Document Design. Implementing this checklist means doing several “passes” over your document, looking at different aspects each time. For example, in your “first pass,” review the entire document for overall formatting, content requirements, coherent flow of information, and appropriate tone.

If your document incorporates sources, you will want to do an additional “pass” to make sure that all sources are cited properly and in chronological order in the body text, and that they all cross-reference to your list of references at the end of the document. See Chapter 6: Citing and Documenting in IEEE Style for details.

Use the following H5P interaction to practice your understanding of the revising levels.

Teamwork is a key component of almost any workplace, but it is essential in engineering and software development environments where you often find yourself working as part of a team on large projects. Imagine for a moment how many people must work together to designs a product like Skyrim (click here if you want to know: Skyrim development team).

It is is widely accepted that team synergy and team intelligence lead to greater efficiency and better results in most situations. Why, then, are some people reluctant to engage in teamwork? Perhaps this reluctance stems from ineffective or dysfunctional teamwork experiences in the past. Often the culprit in these situations is not a “poor team player” or an “inability to get along with others.” More likely it was caused by one of two things:  misaligned goals or confusion over roles. For teamwork to be effective, all members of the team must understand and share the goals of the project, and all members must fully understand their roles—what is expected of them, and how they will be held accountable. An effective team leader will make sure that goals and roles are fully understood by all team members.

“Introduction to Teamwork,” a section in Designing Engineers, by Susan McCahan et al. provides a detailed description of the stages of the Tuckman Team Formation model and the need for effective communications at each stage. A team, according to McCahan et al., “is a group of people who come together to work in an interrelated manner towards a common goal.” They go on to differentiate a team from a group by noting that a team is connected by “a common purpose or goal and the reliance on the skills of all the members to meet the goal” . In other words, team members see themselves as part of a collective working towards a common goal rather than individuals working on separate tasks that may lead to an end product. In order to work effectively, team members need to communicate clearly and constructively, and learn how to deal with crises and conflicts that will inevitably arise.

Some common benefits of working in teams include increased productivity, increased innovation, and increased efficiency. Excellent teams have synergy that makes them more than simply the sum of their parts. The term “team intelligence” refers to the fact that collectively, teams have more knowledge and skill than the single individuals working separately. However, challenges can also arise when working in a team. Conflicts within a team do occur and often they begin as a result of poor communication and weak focus. Some ways to handle these challenges include the following:

• Elect a team leader: the team leader will act as the hub for communication and tasks. This person helps provide direction and guidance for the team. This should be someone who has earned the team’s respect and who can be persuasive and tactful. This role can be rotated among team members.
• Ensure the goal is clear: a team is governed by the goal that everyone works to achieve. It is important that the goal is clearly understood and agreed upon by everyone on the team.
• Establish team rules: as a team, determine the rules by which the team will operate. These should include expectations around time, meetings, attendance, communication, decision-making, contribution, and mechanisms to warn and/or fire a team member or quit a team.
• Assign responsibilities: as part of the breakdown of tasks, members should be assigned responsibility for certain tasks, which means that they are the primary leads in preventing and addressing issues that come up in that area.
• Set agendas for meetings and keep minutes: to ensure that team meeting time is useful and achieves its purpose, plan an agenda for each meeting to help keep everyone on task. In addition, have someone take minutes to record decisions that are made. This record helps prevent repetition and ensures work actually gets done.
• Determine the timing for tasks: task timing involves two aspects: the duration for completing the task and the timing of the task in relation to the other tasks. Typically, tasks take longer than you think they will so it is often better to add 25% to your duration estimate. The timing of the tasks are important to figure out because some tasks can be completed concurrently, but others may have to be sequenced. Professionals often use Gantt Charts to outline these tasks and the time they will take within the overall project scale.
• Manage communications: if a problem arises with someone on the team, the team leader should speak privately to the person and clearly indicate what needs to change and why. The focus should be on the behaviour, not on the person’s character. Issues should be dealt with quickly rather than left to deteriorate further. If this does not solve the problem, then try other approaches (See McCahan et al. “Management Strategies” for more information).

There are several tools and strategies that teams can use to improve their functioning and productivity. Some examples include using the following documents:

• Team Charter: outlines the rules and expectations agreed upon by the team
• Meeting Agenda: outlines the main points for discussion at a meeting
• Meeting Minutes: records the decisions and relevant discussion points for a meeting
• Work Logs: records the tasks and time spent for each team member
• Status Reports: records the completed tasks and work left to complete
• Gantt Chart: breaks down tasks and their estimated duration over the work period.

There are also many software programs and apps that can help teams manage projects. Students often use Google docs to work collaboratively on a document or project. The most common one used in the workplace is Microsoft Project. However, other productivity apps can be used to great effect as well.  Slack, Wrike, and Asana are free popular web based options. Whatever tool you choose to use, it should be something that all members can access and understand.

Meeting Documents: Agendas and Minutes

What happens at team meetings should be planned and recorded for future reference. Agendas and Minutes are documents that do this. A meeting also should have a chair (the person who keeps things on track) and a recorder (who records what happened and what decisions were made). The Agenda is the plan for what you want to discuss and accomplish at the meeting. It is usually made up of a list of items, sometimes with a time frame for each item.

Minutes follow up on the agenda by recording what decisions were made and what important topics were discussed. One person is responsible for recording the events of the meeting, and distributing the minutes to each member (via email usually). That way, no one should forget what tasks they agreed to complete and when.

Work Logs

Work logs are common documents used in the work place (and in your Co-op Work Terms) to keep track of what work is done, by whom, and how long it took. These can be very helpful for keeping a team on track and ensuring equitable workloads. To ensure accountability, have each team member sign off on the work log.

The next section reviews several Models for Understanding Team Dynamics.

An important aspect of effective teamwork entails understanding group dynamics in terms of both team situation and individual temperament. The next few pages review a variety models often applied in workplaces that can help a team perform optimally and manage crises effectively.

The Tuckman Team Model

“Tuckman’s Stages of Group Development,” proposed by psychologist Bruce Tuckman in 1965, is one of the most famous theories of team development. It describes four stages that teams may progress through: forming, storming, norming, and performing (a 5th stage was added later:  adjourning).  According to McCahan et al., the stages move from organizing to producing, and although the stages appear linear, in fact teams may move backwards depending on events that may influence the team and the communications strategies that they use. Some teams can also stall in a stage and never fully realize their potential. Figure 4.2.1 outlines these stages. Please refer to the McCahan et al. text for a more complete discussion.

Figure 4.2.1 The Stages of the Tuckman Model.

Note that at each stage, communication is a critical component of successfully moving to the next stage. The forming stage, when everyone is getting to know each other and are trying to make a good impression, is a good time to create a set of shared expectations, guidelines, or a Team Charter. A team forming activity is also a good idea to help build trust and get to know the various strengths and weaknesses of the team members. This is an orientation stage, on both an interpersonal and professional level, where preliminary boundaries and expectations are established.

The storming stage is the one most often characterized by group conflict and dysfunction. It is often where the preliminary expectations and boundaries are challenged as individuals learn more about each other’s motivations. This coincides with the “brainstorming” stage of the design process, in which each member contributes ideas that could potentially become the focus of the project. It is also the stage where team mates learn about each others’ strengths and weaknesses, and try to determine what their roles will be in the project.  Learning to harness the constructive potential of conflict and compromise in this stage is important to progressing to the next stage.

During the norming stage, if conflicts have been resolved and team mates have proved flexible, all is going well, each team member knows their role and works on their part of the project. Sometimes, people work independently in this stage, but check in with team mates frequently to make sure work flow is efficient and effective. Group cohesion ensures that everyone is responsible to the task and to each other.  Problems might arise at this stage if teammates do not fully understand their role, the team expectations, or the overall goal; revisiting the forming or storming stage may be required.

Few first-time teams reach the performing stage, as this happens when teams have worked together well on several projects, have established a synergy, and have developed systems that that make projects go smoothly and efficiently. Less time is needed to form, storm and learn to norm; performing teams can move quickly and interdependently to tackling the task at hand. Adjourning and going their separate ways can often be somewhat emotional for these teams. Figure 4.2.2 depicts the trajectory of each team member during each stage.

Figure 4.2.2 Trajectory of team mates during each stage of the Tuckman team formation model.

Review the components of the Tuckman model and then use the H5P interaction to test your knowledge. Drag the correct description to the appropriate component.

Next we will look at the DISC Model.

DISC Model

DISC theory, developed in 1928 by Dr. William Moulton Marston (who also, as it happens, created the Wonder Woman comic series!), has evolved into a useful model for conflict management as it predicts behaviours based on four key personality traits he originally described as Dominance, Inducement, Submission, and Compliance. The names of these four traits have been variously revised by others over the decades, so you might find different terms used in different contexts. The four general traits are now often described as (1) Dominance, (2) Influence/Inspiring (3) Steadiness/Supportive, and (4) Compliance/Conscientiousness (see Figure 4.2.3).

Figure 4.2.3 DISC Profile

Industries often use DISC assessments in professional contexts. Having some insight into your teammates’ personality traits can help when trying to resolve conflicts. General characteristics of each trait are as follows:

• Dominance
  • Characteristics: direct, decisive, ego-driven, problem-solver, and risk-taker; likes new challenges and freedom from routine; driven to overcome obstacles
  • Strengths: great organizer and time manager; challenges the status quo; innovative
  • Weaknesses: can be argumentative, disrespectful of authority, and overly ambitious (taking on too much); can be blunt, stubborn, and aggressive

• Inspiring/Influential
  • Characteristics: enthusiastic, persuasive, optimistic, trusting, impulsive, charismatic, and emotional
  • Strengths: creative problem solver; great cheer-leader, negotiator, and peace-maker; a real “people person”
  • Weaknesses: more concerned with popularity than tangible results; lacks attention to detail

• Steady/Supportive
  • Characteristics: reliable, predictable, friendly, good listener, team player, empathetic, easy-going, and altruistic.
  • Strengths: dependable, loyal; respects authority; has patience and empathy; good at conflict resolution; willing to compromise.
  • Weaknesses: resistant to change; sensitive to criticism; difficulty prioritizing

• Cautious/Conscientious/Compliant
  • Characteristics: has high standards; values precision and accuracy; analytical and systematic; even-tempered, realistic, and logical; methodical; respect for authority
  • Strengths: great information gatherer/researcher; able to define situations precisely and accurately; offers realistic perspective
  • Weaknesses: can get bogged down in details; needs clear boundaries, procedures, and methods; difficulty accepting criticism; may avoid conflict or just “give in.” May be overly timid.

Review the following H5P flash card interaction to test your understanding of the traits in the DISC model.

Richard Beckhard’s GRPI model, adapted as the GRIP model will be discussed next.

GRIP Model

Richard Beckhard’s GRPI model, originally developed in 1972, has been widely adapted in sports contexts as the GRIP model (see Figure 4.2.4), outlining four interrelated components of highly effective teamwork:

• Goals: everyone must fully understand and be committed to the goals of the team, and of the organization. Everyone’s goals must be aligned in order to establish trust, make progress, and achieve desired outcome.
• Roles: all team members must know what part they play, what is expected, and how they are held accountable and responsible.
• Interpersonal: quality communication and collaboration require and foster trust among team members; sensitivity and flexibility needed to deal with conflict and make progress.
• Processes: defined system for how decisions are made, how the team solves problems and addresses conflict; defines work flow and procedures to be followed in completing the project.

Figure 4.2.4 GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics.

Review the components of the GRIP model and then use the H5P interaction to test your knowledge. Drag the correct description to the appropriate component.

The next model for understanding team dynamics is the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Model Model.

Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Model

Thomas and Kilmann’s model for handling team conflict outlines five main approaches to managing team conflict (Competing, Accommodating, Compromising, Avoiding, and Collaborating), placed in a matrix of two scales: Assertiveness—the degree to which one tries to meet one’s own needs; and Cooperativeness—degree to which one tries to satisfy the needs of other team members (See illustration).

Each approach can have both positive and negative impacts:

1. Competing:  highly assertive, but uncooperative behaviour, characterized by the urge to “win at all costs,” dominate, and engage in power struggles. This can result in animosity, but can also spur teammates to compete constructively, which can lead to interesting innovations if well managed.
2. Accommodating:  highly cooperative, but unassertive behaviour. This may seem like a good way to avoid conflict, but it can also lead to self-silencing of good ideas in order to appease others, which may lead to feelings of resentment.
3. Compromising:  this approach is the most moderate in both scales, and while it might seem constructive, it can lead to dissatisfaction and mediocre progress or results. Sometimes compromise is necessary, but often, the best solution comes from a single inspirational source.
4. Avoiding:  being unassertive and uncooperative is generally the least effective way to deal conflict, as this simply avoids the problem and neglects the need for a solution. However, when a feasible solution to a problem seems impossible, sometimes ignoring it and focusing on what is good can be the best way to just get through it.
5. Collaborating:  being highly assertive and cooperative is the best way to find solutions that benefit the whole team and build respect.

Review the five main approaches outlined in the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode model and then test your knowledge with the H5P interaction.

The final model we discuss is the Lencioni model.

Lencioni Model

In his 2005 book, The Five Dysfunctions of a Team, Lencioni outlines five common problems teams experience that impact their effectiveness:

1. Lack of trust:  if team members do not trust each other, they are unlikely to take risks or ask for help. A lack of trust means a low level of comfort that makes it difficult to communicate and perform effectively as a team
2. Fear of conflict:  avoiding conflict can lead to an artificial “peace” at the expense of progress and innovation. Conflict is a normal part of team work and can be very productive if managed effectively.
3. Lack of commitment:  team members do not commit to doing the work, do not follow through on decisions or tasks, do not meet deadlines, and let their teammates down, ultimately affecting the success of the whole project.
4. Avoidance of accountability.
5. Inattention to results:  when team members focus on their own personal goals instead of project goals, they lose sight of the expected results that actually measure the success of the project. Not focusing on the results during the process means that no one is planning how to improve those results.

Figure 4.2.5 Lencioni Model: Five Dysfunctions of a Team

Lencioni advises tackling each dysfunction, displayed in the pyramid in Figure 4.2.5, from the bottom up. Establishing trust is a crucial first step to being able to manage conflict, achieve commitment, create accountability and focus on results.

Review the components of the Lenconi model and then use the H5P interaction to test your knowledge. Drag the correct description to the appropriate component.

Having examined the 5 models, complete the following exercise.

Media Attributions

• Figure 4.2.1 The Stages of the Tuckman Model taken from Communication for Business Professionals – Canadian Edition by eCampus Ontario is licensed under a CC-BY-SA licence.
• Figure 4.2.2 Modelo de Tuckman by Dlogo Nicoleti is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 licence.
• Figure 4.2.3 DISC Profile by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.
• Figure 4.2.4 GRIP Model of teamwork dynamics by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.
• Figure 4.2.5 Lencioni Model: Five Dysfunctions of a Team by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

You have likely had at least one opportunity to work and write collaboratively with others, as this is an increasingly common way to work, both in school and in the workplace. The engineering design process, at least in part, entails working collaboratively to gather, organize, manage and disseminate information. This information is often carefully analyzed and used to make important decisions, so it is critical that team members collaborate effectively in managing these communications tasks.

Engineers report spending a considerable amount of their time writing, and they frequently engage in collaborative writing (CW). A recent survey asked various professionals what portion of their work week was devoted to writing, collaborative writing, and international communications. The results shown in Table 4.3.1 indicate that collaborative writing makes up a significant portion of overall writing tasks.

Research has also shown that “writing in general and CW in particular have been recognized to be fundamental to most professional and academic practices in engineering.”  Figure 4.3.1 shows that engineers rate writing skills as extremely important to career advancement.

Figure 4.3.1 The importance of writing for career advancement for surveyed engineers. 

Like any kind of teamwork, collaborative writing requires the entire team to be focused on a common objective; according to Lowry et al., an effective team “negotiates, coordinates, and communicates during the creation of a common document.” The collaborative writing process, like the Tuckman team formation model, is iterative and social, meaning the team works together and moves back and forth throughout the process.

Successful collaborative writing is made easier when you understand the different strategies you can apply, how best to control the document, and the different roles people can assume. Figure 4.3.2 outlines the various activities involved at various stages of the collaborating writing process.

Figure 4.3.2  Collaborative writing stages [Image description]

Collaborative writing strategies are methods a team uses to coordinate the writing of a collaborative document. There are five main strategies (see Table 4.3.2), each with their advantages and disadvantages. Can you think of any other benefits or limitations?

Document management reflects the approaches used to maintain version control of the document and describe who is responsible for it. Four main control modes are listed in Table 4.3.3, along with their pros and cons. Can you think of any more, based on your experience?

Roles refer to the different hats participants might wear, depending on the activity. Table 4.3.4 describes several roles within a collaborative writing team. Which role(s) have you had in a group project? Are there ones you always seem to do? Ones that you prefer, dislike, or would like to try?

Image description

Figure 4.3.2 Collaborative writing stages

Four stages of collaborative writing

1. Team Formation
   • Team introductions, getting to know each others’ skill sets
   • Team bonding, building trust
   • Operating agreements, setting expectations
2. Team Planning
   • • Review tasks to be done and roles of each team mate, create a work plan
   • Set team goals and objectives: milestones, deliverables, due dates
   • Determine processes for workflow and decision making
3. Document Production
   • Plan the document: research, brainstorm, outline the document format and content
   • Compose a draft of the document
   • Revise: iterative revisions, consider using an outside peer reviewer
4. Wind Up
   • Final document review to edit and approve content, organization, and style
   • Final document processing (proofreading and submitting)
   • External approval

[Return to Figure 4.3.2]

Media Attributions

• Figure 4.3.1 The importance of writing for career advancement for surveyed engineers by J. Swartz, et al. is licensed under a CC-BY 4.0 licence.
• Figure 4.3.2  Collaborative writing stages by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

Nicholas Walliman, in his handbook Research Methods: The Basics, defines research methods as “the tools and techniques for doing research.” These techniques include collecting, sorting, and analyzing the information and data you find. The better the tools and more comprehensive the techniques you employ, the more effective your research will be. By extension, the more effective your research is, the more credible and persuasive your argument will be.

Here are some basic terms and definitions you should be familiar with:

Research:  the systematic process of finding out more about something than you already know, ideally so that you can prove a hypothesis, produce new knowledge and understanding, and make evidence-based decisions

Research Methods:  techniques of collecting, sorting, and analyzing information/data

Data:  bits of information.

Research Sources

The typical kinds of research sources you will use can be grouped into three broad categories:

• Primary Sources:  research you might conduct yourself in lab experiments and product testing, through surveys, observations, measurements, interviews, site visits, prototype testing, beta testing, etc. These can also include published statistical data, historical records, legal documents, firsthand historical accounts, and original creative works.
• Secondary Sources:  written sources that discuss, analyze, and interpret primary data, such as published research and studies, reviews of these studies, meta-analyses, and formal critiques.

• Tertiary Sources:  reference sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, and handbooks that provide a consolidation of primary and secondary information. They are useful to gain a general understanding of your topic and major concepts, lines of inquiry, or schools of thought in the field.

Categories of Data

Data can be categorized in several ways:

Primary data

Primary data are data that have been directly observed, experienced and recorded close to the event. This is data that you might create yourself by

• Measurement: collecting numbers indicating amounts (temperature, size, etc.)
• Observation: with your own senses or with instruments (camera, microscope)
• Interrogation: conducting interviews, focus groups, surveys, polls, or questionnaires
• Participation: experience of doing or seeing something (visit the site, tour the facility, manipulate models or simulations, Beta test, etc.)

Note: primary research done in an academic setting that includes gathering information from human subjects requires strict protocols and will likely require ethics approval. Ask your instructor for guidance and see chapter 5.4 Human Research Ethics.

Secondary data

Secondary data comes from sources that record, analyze, and interpret primary data. It is critical to evaluate the credibility of these sources. You might find such data in

• Academic research: refereed academic studies published in academic journals
• Print sources: books, trade magazines, newspapers, popular media, etc.
• Online research: popular media sources, industry websites, government websites, non-profit organizations
• Non-written Material: TV, radio, film, such as documentaries, news, podcasts, etc.
• Professional Documents: annual reports, production records, committee reports, survey results, etc.

Quantitative data

Quantitative data uses numbers to describe information that can be measured quantitatively. This data is used to measure, make comparisons, examine relationships, test hypotheses, explain, predict, or even control.

Qualitative data

Uses words to record and describe the data collected; often describes people’s feelings, judgments, emotions, customs, and beliefs that can only be expressed in descriptive words, not in numbers. This includes “anecdotal data” or personal experiences.

Use the H5P interaction to test your knowledge.

Research Methods

Research methods are often categorized as quantitative, qualitative or “mixed method.” Some projects, like a science, require the use of the scientific method of inquiry, observation, quantitative data collection, analysis and conclusions to test a hypothesis. Other kinds of projects take a more deductive approach and gather both quantitative and qualitative evidence to support a position or recommendation. The research methods you choose will be determined by the goals and scope of your project, and by your intended audience’s expectations. More specific methodologies, such as ways to structure the analysis of your data, include the following:

• Cost/benefit Analysis:  determines how much something will cost vs what measurable benefits it will create
• Life-cycle Analysis:  determines overall sustainability of a product or process, from manufacturing, through lifetime use, to disposal (you can also perform comparative life-cycle analyses, or specific life cycle stage analysis)
• Comparative Analysis:  compares two or more options to determine which is the “best” solution (given specific problem criteria such as goals, objectives, and constraints)
• Process Analysis:  studies each aspect of a process to determine if all parts and steps work efficiently together to create the desired outcome.
• Sustainability Analysis:  uses concepts such as the “triple bottom line” or “three pillars of sustainability” to analyze whether a product or process is environmentally, economically, and socially sustainable.

Researching with Integrity

In all cases, the way you collect, analyze, and use data must be ethical and consistent with professional standards of honesty and integrity. Lapses in integrity can not only lead to poor quality reports in an academic context (poor grades and academic dishonesty penalties), but in the workplace, these lapses can also lead to lawsuits, loss of job, and even criminal charges. Some examples of these lapses include

• Fabricating your own data (making it up to suit your purpose)
• Ignoring data that disproves or contradicts your ideas
• Misrepresenting someone else’s data or ideas
• Using data or ideas from another source without acknowledgment or citation of the source.

Failing to cite quoted, paraphrased or summarized sources properly is one of the most common lapses in academic integrity, which is why your previous academic writing class spent considerable time and effort to give you a sophisticated understanding of how and why to avoid plagiarizing, as well as the consequences of doing so. If you would like to review this information, see Appendix C: Integrating Source Evidence into Your Writing, and consult the University of Victoria Calendar entry on Academic Integrity.

In this “information age” when so much information is available at our fingertips on the Internet, it is crucial to be able to critically search through the reams of information in order to select credible sources that can provide reliable and useful data to support your ideas and convince your audience. In the era of “fake news,” deliberate misinformation, and “alternative facts,” developing the skill to evaluate the credibility of sources is critical.

From your previous academic writing course, you are familiar with academic journals and how they differ from popular sources, as in Figure 5.2.1. If you would like to refresh your memory on this, watch UVic library’s video on Scholarly and Popular Sources. These contain peer-reviewed articles written by scholars, often presenting their original research, reviewing the original research of others, or performing a “meta-analysis” (an analysis of multiple studies that analyze a given topic).

Figure 5.2.1 Examples of Popular vs Scholarly Sources.

Scholarly articles published in academic journals are usually required sources in academic research essays; they are also an integral part of engineering projects and technical reports. Many projects require a literature review, which collects, summarizes and sometimes evaluates the work of researchers in this field whose work has been recognized as a valuable contribution to the “state of the art.” However, they are not the only kind of research you will find useful. Since you are researching in a professional field and preparing for the workplace, there are many credible kinds of sources you will draw on in a professional context. Table 5.2.1 lists several types of sources you may find useful in researching your projects.

The importance of critically evaluating your sources for authority, relevance, timeliness, and credibility cannot be overstated. Anyone can put anything on the internet; and people with strong web and document design skills can make this information look very professional and credible—even if it isn’t. Since much research is currently done online, and many sources are available electronically, developing your critical evaluation skills is crucial to finding valid, credible evidence to support and develop your ideas.  In fact, this has become such a challenging issue that there are sites like this List of Predatory Journals that regularly update its online list of journals that subvert the peer review process and simply publish for profit.

Review your understanding of research sources with this H5P interactivity.

Mark Twain, supposedly quoting British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, famously said, “There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” On the other hand, H.G. Wells has been (mis)quoted as stating, “statistical thinking will one day be as necessary for efficient citizenship as the ability to read and write.” The fact that the actual sources of both of these “quotations” are unverifiable makes their sentiments no less true. The effective use of statistics can play a critical role in influencing public opinion as well as persuading in the workplace. However, as the fame of the first quotation indicates, statistics can be used to mislead rather than accurately inform—whether intentionally or unintentionally.

When evaluating research sources and presenting your own research, be careful to critically evaluate the authority, content, and purpose of the material, using questions in Table 5.2.2.

Given the pie chart in Figure 5.2.2, if you only consulted articles that rejected global warming in a project related to that topic, you would be guilty of cherry picking and cognitive bias.

Figure 5.2.2 The number of articles that reject global warming out of all peer-reviewed climate articles within a 21 year time period.

Beware of Logical Fallacies

There are many logical fallacies that both writers and readers can fall prey to (see Table 5.2.3). It is important to use data ethically and accurately, and to apply logic correctly and validly to support your ideas.

We all have biases when we write or argue; however, when evaluating sources, you want to be on the look out for bias that is unfair, one-sided, or slanted. Consider whether the author has acknowledged and addressed opposing ideas, potential gaps in the research, or limits of the data. Look at the kind of language the author uses: is it slanted, strongly connotative, or emotionally manipulative? Is the supporting evidence presented logically, credibly, and ethically? Has the author cherry-picked or misrepresented sources or ideas? Does the author rely heavily on emotional appeal?

Media Attributions

• Figure 5.2.1 Cover images from journals are used to illustrate difference between popular and scholarly journals, and are for noncommercial, educational use only.
• Figure 5.2.2 “Why climate deniers have no credibility — in one pie chart,” DeSmog Blog. For noncommercial, educational use only.

Often, when you are first given a project, the problem is fairly general and open-ended. This allows you to approach the problem in a variety of ways, but also requires you to do some work to decide which particular approach you will take. Most projects will require careful consideration of scope.

Who is your audience? What is your purpose? What are the limitations placed on what can be expected or achieved? What are the constraints you have to work within? Clearly, no project will be relevant to all people in all places at all times. You must define the scope by considering:

• Who is your primary audience? Who else might read this?
• What is the best format to use to present this project to these readers? (what format or specific information have they requested?)
• What is the specific outcome you want this document or project to achieve? What do you want your readers to do, think, or decide after reading it?
• Who are the people who will be affected by this project? Who are stakeholders?
• Are there limitations (or a potential to apply limits) in terms of geography, demographics, or available technology? Could you consider a Pilot Project or Beta-Test?
• Is there a time frame? A budget?
• Are there legal considerations, regulations, policies, and guidelines that must be taken into account?

Review this sequence of slides to help you reflect on the questions above and define the scope of your project.

Your project will first require background research to clearly define the problem you are tackling. How do you know there is a problem? What measurable impacts can you point to? What will you need to prove that this is a significant problem that needs to be addressed? Can you provide data to show the extent of the “unsatisfactory situation” and how it negatively affects people? Is there an expected goal or target that any proposed solution is expected to meet?

The process of coming up with a focused idea for your research can take many forms. Strategies for narrowing and focusing include the following:

• Free–writing:  write for 10 minutes straight without stopping or self-editing
• Mind-mapping or Concept-mapping:  create a graphic organizer listing ideas and indicating how they are connected
• Questioning:  who, what, where, when, why, how? What do I already know? What do I need to find out?
• Brainstorming:  list all ideas without censoring or rejecting any, no matter how ridiculous they might seem at first.

In engineering fields, projects most often take a Problem-Solution approach. This entails clearly defining the problem in as open-ended a way as is feasible, possibly considering its causes and effects, and potentially coming up with or evaluating solution ideas.

In presenting your solution, you will have to find research to provide support for the basic premise of your research question (is this idea feasible?) and prove your hypothesis (it will be effective/beneficial). You might do this by showing that similar ideas have been implemented and/or researched in other areas, or that the ideas you are presenting are based on sound evidence. Collecting your own primary data (such as a questionnaire or site visit) may also help show how your ideas are feasible in the local community context.

Using appropriate methods and finding the right sort of research allows you to convince people that your ideas have validity and merit, and that the knowledge you have acquired or created is evidence-based. Research gives you the tools to inform and persuade by doing the following:

• Categorize, Classify
• Describe, Document
• Explain, Analyze, Evaluate
• Compare, Correlate
• Predict

The first step in most projects is figuring out what you don’t know and what you need to know. Without this basic context work, it’s difficult to work your way to finding relevant sources that can help you apply and analyze information and data from sources, and synthesize them into your own argument or recommendation.

A problem-solving approach offers many ways to narrow your focus. Try creating a concept map like in Figure 5.3.1 to get a sense of the many ways you might approach your topic, and then narrow down your focus to one of those approaches. This will help you think of key words to use in your search for sources. The more you brainstorm, the more potential key words and synonyms you can come up with. The “mind map” below shows various ways to consider the larger context of your problem and find a specific area to focus on.

Figure 5.3.1 Concept map for refining a topic on climate change [Image description]

This kind of “graphic brainstorming” can help you consider many different ways your topic can be approached. You can ask questions such as how? why? who? to further extend this exploration. Your goal here is to narrow down your focus to one “bubble” (that is perhaps 3 or 4 nodes away from your central topic node) that can afford a promising topic while limiting the scope to something you can accomplish in the given time frame and assignment specifications (word count, research requirement, goal, etc).

Clearly you can’t solve the problem of climate change in one paper or project. And no reasonable instructor or employer would expect you to. However, you might be asked to explore effective ways to reduce carbon emissions in a specific industry in a given period of time and/or geographical region. Or you might investigate whether a particular form of alternative energy would be effective in a particular situation. Even then, you would have to consider approaches. Would you recommend changing a policy or law to try to address the causes of the problem? Providing incentives to industry or consumers? Innovating a current technology or process? Creating a new technology or process? Evaluating a currently proposed solution?

Researching what other people working in this field have studied and written about can help you refine your focus and choose how you want to “participate in this conversation.” The ultimate aim is to narrow your topic enough to provide a specific question to guide your research and identify key words and terminology related to your topic. A good research question should be somewhat open ended; that is, the answer should not be a simple “yes” or “no.” The focus of your research question should allow you to provide a comprehensive answer that takes context into careful consideration.

Figure 5.3.2 shows a more specifically problem-based approach to concept mapping the general idea and finding areas of potential focus.  A good focus for a paper or project will likely be 3-4 nodes away from the central problem box.

Figure 5.3.2 Refining your project scope using a problem-based approach to concept mapping. [Image description]

You generally cannot cover all of these issues in one paper or project. Try to narrow your focus so that you can research a specific aspect of the topic in-depth. Choose one specific focus (proposing a solution), and consider what other aspects must be included (defining the problem; choosing a specific demographic or geographical area to focus on).

As an example, consider the issue of Climate Change and how it might fit into each of these “narrowing your focus” categories.

Why Project Proposals Might be Rejected

A proposal or recommendation needs research to convince the reader that the idea is worth pursuing or implementing. A project proposal could be rejected for any of the of following reasons related to insufficient research:

• Unclear Problem:  research problem is not clearly defined so research plan has no clear focus (your ideas is too vague and not well though out)
• Unnecessary Project:  this issue is already well-known or the problem has already been solved (or is in the process of being solved). For example, proposing that the school cafeteria should replace plastic cutlery with compostable cutlery, when it has already done so, would result in a rejected proposal.
• Impractical Scope:  access to information, resources, and equipment needed to complete your proposed study may not be available; adequate conclusions cannot be reached in designated time frame and resources available. For example, if you propose to do a study that will take 2 years, but your project is due in 2 months, the proposal will be rejected.

As you can see, research will be needed in all stages and sections of your project.

Image Descriptions

Figure 5.3.1 Concept map for refining a topic on climate change

A concept map to brainstorm topics related to climate change.

Climate change

• is caused by
  • natural processes
  • human activities, such as
    • population increases
    • burning fossil fuels
• evidence
  • rising sea levels
  • melting glaciers
  • warming oceans
    • which impact animal habitat (e.g., polar bears)
• can be managed by
  • changed consumer behaviour, such as
    • recycling
  • further scientific research
  • environmental laws and policies, such as
    • political action
    • carbon taxes

[Return to Figure 5.3.1]

Figure 5.3.2 Refining your project scope using a problem-based approach to concept mapping.

A problem based approach to concept mapping.

What is the central problem or issue you are researching?

1. Define the problem.
   1. Are people aware of the problem? Do you need to create awareness?
   2. Is the current situation misunderstood?
2. Identify causes.
   1. Need to create awareness?
   2. Known causes
   3. Yet to be determined?
   4. Controversial?
3. Identify effects.
   1. Environmental
   2. Political
   3. Social
   4. Economic
4. Look at solutions.
   1. Propose a solution
   2. Compare or evaluate proposed solutions
   3. Critique proposed solutions
   4. Consider disciplinary approaches

[Return to Figure 5.3.2]

Media Attributions

• Fig. 5.3.1. “Concept map for refining a topic on climate change”. Every attempt has been made to locate the copyright owner. For noncommercial, educational use only.
• Figure 5.3.2 Refining your project scope using a problem-based approach to concept mapping by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence.

1. What is IEEE Style and why do I need to use it?

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Style is one of many systems for referencing (citing and documenting) sources that you have quoted, paraphrased, or summarized in your documents or presentations. Different disciplines use different styles, as they suit the needs of their users. For example,

• Engineering generally uses IEEE or APA Style
• Social Sciences generally use APA
• Humanities disciplines often use MLA or Chicago Style
• The Sciences generally use CSE.

IEEE is the generally accepted format for writing research papers and reports in technical fields, particularly in computer science. You should always confirm with your instructors which format they expect you to use.

In your assignments and Work Term Reports, you often have to gather information, data, illustrations, theories, interpretations and facts about your assigned topic. These sources often provide the evidence or theoretical framework you need to support and develop your ideas. You must cite information and images that you retrieved from other sources to show that you have done good quality research, and to give credit for the ideas to the original author. Failing to cite the source—whether quoted, paraphrased or summarized—is plagiarism. Citing your sources correctly has the following benefits:

• Provides evidence you need to support your claims and validate ideas
• Shows you have done significant reading and research on your topic, and therefore have a credible level of authority to write or speak on this topic
• Shows that you can synthesize and incorporate information into your own work, combining it with your own ideas; the citations distinguish YOUR ideas from those of your sources
• Allows the reader to find those sources and do further reading
• Allows you to maintain academic integrity (avoid plagiarizing).

2. How do I cite and reference sources properly?

Citing and referencing sources is a two-part process: there is an in-text marker that directs the reader to the complete bibliographical reference at the end of the document. Both elements are essential and missing one or the other can result in plagiarism. This cross-referencing system made up of the following two elements:

1. In-Text Citations:  when you (a) refer to a source, (b) quote, paraphrase or summarize a source, or (c) use data or graphics from a source, you place an in-text citation referring to that source within paragraph. The citation takes the form of a number in a square bracket [1] typed inline with your sentence text (generally not super-scripted). Citations are numbered in chronological order as they appear in your paper. Thus, the first source that you site is [1]. The second source is [2], etc. Once a source is given a number, it always retains that number. So if you cite the first source later on in your paper, it is still (and always) cited as [1] throughout your paper.
2. References List:  include a numbered list of all the sources you have cited in your paper, documented properly in IEEE style, at the end of your paper. A reader familiar with academic conventions will be able to tell what kinds of sources you are referencing, and will be able to find the source based on the information included.

3. In-Text Citations – Where do they go?

It can be tricky to know exactly where to place the in-text citation in your sentence. Generally, the default position for a citation is at the end of the sentence, unless placing it there would create confusion. For example, where should the citation go in the following sentence?

Smith claims that “insert a quotation here,” but other scientists argue that her conclusions are flawed.

If you place the citation for Smith at the end of the sentence, you are saying that Smith acknowledges that many scientists think her conclusions are flawed. That wouldn’t make sense. You would have to cite like this:

Smith claims that “insert a quotation here” [1], but other scientists [2]-[5] argue that her conclusions are flawed.

The citation can be placed at several places:

• At the end of the sentence, if the entire sentence is a quotation, paraphrase, or summary of the source’s idea: Chan asserts ideas X and Y, and he gives additional examples to illustrate them [3].
• Directly after the name of the source: Chan [1] claims…
• Directly after the quotation: Chan asserts that “insert quotation here” [2], and carry on with your idea (your analysis of Chan’s assertion).
• After referring to a source or an idea from a source:
  • This theory was first put forward in a 1996 study [4].
  • Several recent studies [3], [5], [9]-[12] have suggested that…

NOTE: Your citation should NOT go inside the quotation marks; it is not part of the quotation. However, punctuation must be placed AFTER the citation, as that citation is part of that sentence (or clause), not part of the next sentence.  For example

Author X claims “this idea is a quotation” [1]. The next sentence starts here…

Author X claims “this ideas is a quotation” [1], and I add my interpretation after.

Occasionally, some writers use IEEE citations like this (but I don’t recommend it for your university assignments or Co-op Work Term Reports):

As [1] and [5] have shown, quantum theory has many practical applications in real world settings. [2] disagrees, however, and argues that ….

This is why you must put the period AFTER the citation when a sentence ends with a citation. A citation that comes AFTER the period technically belongs to the next sentence, as [2] does in the preceding example.

4. What about page numbers for quotations?

When citing a quotation from a print source, your citation should indicate the page where that quotation can be found:

[2, p.7]. or, if referring to several consecutive page [2, pp. 7-12]

If the source is from the Internet or does not have pagination, you don’t have to indicate page numbers (or paragraph numbers).

When citing equations, figures, appendices and such, use the same format you use for citing the page number:

[3, eq. (2)]

[3, Fig. 7.2]

[3, Appendix B]

If you create your own visual (table or graph) based on the data from a source, then your citation should refer to the source. You might include a note such as

… figure data adapted from [3].

5. Do I need to keep citing the source every time I refer to it?

If you are discussing the ideas in a source at length (for example, in a summary), you do not need to cite every consecutive sentence. Cite the first time you mention the source. As long the following sentences clearly indicate that the ideas come from the same source—for example, you are using signal phrases, such as “the author further clarifies the problem by…”—you do not need to keep citing.

If you stop using signal phrases, be sure to include a citation. If you introduce material from another source or add your own analysis between references to that source, you will have to re-cite the source when you refer to it again. Always make sure your reader knows which ideas come from a source, and which come from you, and when you shift from one to the other. If in doubt, cite.

6. What if a source has more than one author?

If the source you are citing has one or two authors, use their names in your signal phrase:

• Brady [5] argues that ….
• Mehta and Barth’s study [6] demonstrates that ….

If the source has three or more authors, use the name of the lead author, followed by et al., the Latin term meaning “and the others.” Like all Latin words, et al. should be italicized:

• Isaacson et al., in their study on fluid dynamics, found that ….

NOTE: in your Reference at the end of your paper, it is a courtesy to list the names of ALL the authors who contributed to the source (rather than using et al.). However, if there are 6 or more authors, it is acceptable to use et al. in your reference list.

7. How do I figure out what the title of an academic journal is?

 Figure 6.1.1 shows a typical .pdf file of a journal article.  It will help you determine the various elements of an academic article that must be included in your reference. Note the difference between the database company (such as Elsevier, EbscoHost, JSTOR, etc) and the name of the journal.

Figure 6.1.1 Elements of an Academic Article.

Test your knowledge with this multiple choice quiz. If you would like to make the image in the questions larger, click the + in the right hand corner.

8. How do I set up my References list?

 Different citation styles use various terms to introduce their list of references, for example, Bibliography or Works Cited. IEEE style uses the term References, or sometimes Cited References to distinguish from General References (of works that have helped to form the author’s ideas, but have not been cited in the document).

At the end of your paper, add a list of all the sources you have cited in your paper, in the order you have cited them—that is, in numerical order (not in alphabetical order). Each reference must provide thorough and complete documentation so that readers can identify the kind of source, and retrieve it if they want to read it. Section 6.2 shows the formats for many of the different kinds of sources you will likely use in your papers and projects. It is important to use the correct conventions for each type of source, as readers familiar with academic conventions will expect this, and they will be able to tell what kinds of sources you are referencing based on what information is included and how it is formatted. If you use conventions incorrectly (such as failing to italicize or use quotation marks around titles to indicate what kind of source it is), you can confuse and mislead your readers.

If you use citation software (such as Zotero, Endnote, or Mendeley) to generate a list of references, be sure to review the references it generates for any errors. These programs are not foolproof, and it is up to you to make sure your references conform to IEEE conventions. For example, sometimes the auto-generator will give a title in ALL CAPS or the author’s full first name. You will have to revise this. They usually do not give DOIs; you may have to add these.

Sample References List

The sample References list below presents shows the preferred formatting.  Note the hanging indent that makes the numbers on the left stand out in a highly readable format.

Media Attributions

• Figure 6.1.1 Elements of an Academic Article is a screenshot of “Why climate change adaptation in cities needs customised and flexible climate services” by Jörg Cortekar, Steffen Bender, Miriam Brune, and Markus Groth that is licensed under a CC BY-NC-ND licence.

Below are some examples of how to document the kinds of sources you will typically reference in your academic and technical papers. When possible, include the DOI (Digital Object Identifier) for .pdf and other documents found online through a database, and/or a URL link for other online sources.

* IEEE Reference Guide [PDF] (2018) indicates that the basic guideline for citing online sources is to follow the standard citation for the print source given previously and add electronic location (URL) or the Digital Object Identifier (DOI) at the end of the citation.  Add a URL at the end of the reference if the source is available on the world wide web.  If both a URL and a DOI are available, place the DOI last.

Examples of how to reference different kinds of sources

Articles from Journals and Magazines (Things that are published periodically)

Print

H. Y. Zhou and K. M. Hou, “Intelligent urban public transportation for accessibility dedicated to people with disabilities,” Sensors, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. xx-xx, Aug. 2012.

Online

M. Sakals, “Eyes in the sky: Unmanned aerial vehicles in the natural resources sector,” Innovation Magazine [Online], vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 17-19, Sept-Oct. 2015. Available: http://www.digitalityworks.com/Viewers/ViewIssue.aspx?IssueID=140&PageNo=1

Conference Paper

M. Ibrahim, “Creative design dynamics and creative systems,” in Proc. 2009 IEEE Int. Systems Conf., Vancouver, BC, 2003, pp. 273-278. DOI: 10.1109/SYSTEMS.2009.4815811.

Newspaper Articles

Online

C. Wilson-Clark, “Computers ranked as key literacy,” The West Australian, March 29, 2004. [Online]. Available: http://www.thewest.com.au. [Accessed Sept. 18, 2004].

Print

B. Bart. “Going Faster.” Globe and Mail, sec. A p.1, Oct. 14, 2002.

Webpage or Website (WWW) (material only available online such as blogs, etc.)

M. Fogarty,“Which versus that,” Grammar Girl, Quick and Dirty Tips [Online]. Available: https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/which-versus-that-0. [Accessed: June 1, 2019].

“IEEE Style: A guide to referencing style for Murdoch University students and staff,” Murdoch University Library, [Online]. Available: http://libguides.murdoch.edu.au/IEEE

Books

M. Ogot and G. Kremer, Engineering Design: A Practical Guide. Pittsburgh: Togo Press, 2004.

Chapter in a book

S. McCahan, P. Anderson, M. Kortschot, P. E. Weiss, and K. A. Woodhouse, “Introduction to Teamwork,” in Designing Engineers: An Introductory Text, Hoboken: Wiley, 2015, pp. 219-260.

Technical Reports (Government, Industry, Organizations)

Delcan, “Johnson Street Bridge Condition Assessment Report,” Delcan and City of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., 2009. Accessed: June 14, 2019 [Online]. Available: https://www.johnsonstreetbridge.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/johnson-street-bridge-condition-assessment-delcan-engineering.pdf

University of Victoria Campus Planning and Sustainability, “The Grand Promenade: Design Charrette,” Campus Greenway, Summary Report 11.2018. Accessed: May 1, 2019 [Online]. Available: https://www.uvic.ca/campusplanning/current-projects/campusgreenway/index.php

Personal Communications (interview, telephone, email, etc.)

Patents

J. P. Wilkinson, “Nonlinear resonant circuit devices,” U.S. Patent 3 624 125, July 16, 1990.

Lectures or Presentations

J. Dagg (Oct. 22, 2017), “Team Dynamics,” ENGR 110 Plenary Lecture, University of Victoria. [PowerPoint slides available: https://coursespaces.uvic.ca/mod/folder/view.php?id=1021973]

Lecture Notes

“Maxwell’s equations and time-varying electromagnetic fields,” class notes for ECE 359, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Victoria, Winter, 2015.

Reference Works (Encyclopedia, Dictionary, Handbook, etc.)

With an author

D. Hart and A. Bauen. (2002). “Fuel cell fuel cycles,” in Fuel Cell Technology Handbook. [Online]. G. Hoogers, Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Available: ENGnetBASE [Accessed: Sept. 22, 2008].

A. D. French, N. R. Bertoniere, R. M. Brown, H. Chanzy, D. Gray, K. Hattori, and W. Glasser. (2003). “Cellulose” in Kirk-Othmer Encylopedia of Chemical Technology. [Online]. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/0471238961.0305121206180514.a01.pub2.

No author

“Composite material,” in Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. [Online]. May 13, 2008. Available: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Composite_material [Accessed: May 24, 2008].

Image from a Print Source

Similar to a chapter in a book or article in a print journal:

Image from an Online Source

Podcast

S. Gary, Presenter, “Mars Insight’s Drill Fails,” SpaceTime with Stuart Gary, June 12, 2019. Sydney: SpaceTime. [Podcast episode]. Available: https://megaphone.link/BIT3581656190. [Accessed June 14, 2019].

Others?

See the IEEE style guide from Murdoch University for helpful examples of many other kinds of sources.

Also see IEEE Reference Guide (2018) for a more complete list of various types of sources and how to reference them.

Netiquette

Text messaging, emailing, and posting on social media in a professional context requires that you be familiar with “netiquette,” or proper etiquette for using the internet. We have all heard the news stories about people who have been fired and companies that have been boycotted for making offensive or inappropriate social media posts. People have even gone to prison for illegal use of private messaging.  The digital world may seem like a free-for-all, “wild wild west” with no clear rules or regulations; however, this is clearly a dangerous perspective for a professional to take, as the consequences for breaking tacit rules, expectations, and guidelines for professional communications can be very costly.

The way that you represent yourself in writing carries significant weight. Writing in an online environment requires tact, skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there for a very long time and may be seen by people you never considered as your intended audience. From text messages to memos to letters, from business proposals to press releases, your written business communication represents you and your company:  your goal is to make it clear, concise, constructive, and professional.

We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal part of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your Instagram page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your potential employer, or that insensitive remark in a Facebook post may come back to haunt you later.

For further information on netiquette, check out the following links:

• Business Insider: Email etiquette rules every professional needs to know
• LinkedIn: Why do you need email etiquette

Texting

Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting, has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not useful for long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience.

When texting, always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.

Email

Email is familiar to most students and workers. In business, it has largely replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication.

Email can be very useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly brief messages. Many businesses use automated emails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to “populate” a form email in which standard paragraphs are used but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.

Emails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to detail, awareness that your email reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. Email often serves to exchange information within organizations. Although email may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company president.

As with all writing, professional communications require attention to the specific writing context, and it may surprise you that even elements of form can indicate a writer’s strong understanding of audience and purpose. The principles explained here apply to the educational context as well; use them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers.

The sample email below demonstrates the principles listed above.

Memos

Memoranda, or memos, are one of the most versatile document forms used in professional settings.  Memos are “in house” documents (sent within an organization) to pass along or request information, outline policies, present short reports, and propose ideas.  While they are often used to inform, they can also be persuasive documents.  A company or institution typically has its own “in house” style or template that is used for documents such as letters and memos.

Memo Format

Figure 7.1.1 shows a sample of our “in house” memo style (the style we will use for memo assignments written for this class), with annotations pointing out various relevant features. The main formatted portions of a memo are the Logo or Letterhead (optional), the Header Block, and the Message. The attached Memos PowerPoint [PPTX] reviews some of these features in detail.

Figure 7.1.1 Sample Memo, annotated. [Image description]

Memo Header Block

The Header Block appears at the top left side of your memo, directly underneath the word MEMO or MEMORANDUM in large, bold, capitalized letters.  This section contains detailed information on the recipient, sender, and purpose.  It includes the following lines:

• TO: give the recipient’s full name, and position or title within the organization
• FROM: include the sender’s (your) full name and position or title
• DATE: include the full date on which you sent the memo
• SUBJECT or RE: write a brief phrase that concisely describes the main content of your memo.

Place a horizontal line under your header block, and place your message below.

Memo Message

The length of a memo can range from a few short sentences to a multi-page report that includes figures, tables, and appendices.  Whatever the length, there is a straightforward organizational principal you should follow.  Organize the content of your memo so that it answers the following questions for the reader:

1. Opening: Do I have to read this?  Why do I have to read this?
2. Details: What do I need to know?
3. Closing: What am I expected to do now?

Memos are generally very direct and concise.  There is no need to start with general introductions before getting to your point. Your readers are colleagues within the same organization, and are likely familiar with the context in which you are writing.  The opening sentences of the memo’s message should make it clear to the reader whether they have to read this entire memo and why (if the memo is informing me about an elevator that’s out of service in a building I never enter, then I don’t really have to read any further).

The middle section of the message should give all of the information needed to adequately inform the readers and fulfill the purpose of the memo. Start with the most general information, and then add the more specific facts and details. Make sure there is enough detail to support your purpose, but don’t overwhelm your readers with unnecessary details or information that is already well known to them.

The final part of the message indicates what, if any, action is required or requested of the readers.  If you are asking your readers to do something, be as courteous as possible, and try to indicate how this action will also benefit them.

For more information on writing memos, check out the memo page on the the Online Writing Lab at Purdue University: Parts of a Memo.

Letters

Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization. They are often printed on letterhead paper that represents the business or organization, and are generally limited to one or two pages. While email and text messages may be used more frequently today, the business letter remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions (complaint letters, for example).

There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but this chapter presents the fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter. Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers (cover letter), deliver important or specific information, provide documentation of an event or decision, or introduce an attached report or long document (letter of transmittal). Figure 7.1.2 shows a letter of transmittal meant to introduce a technical report to its recipient.

Figure 7.1.2 Sample letter of transmittal (click image for an accessible PDF).

Letters with Specific Purposes

There are many possible reasons you might write a letter in a professional context.  Here is a list of the most common kinds of letters:

Transmittal Letters:  when you send a report or some other document, such as a resumé, to an external audience, send it with a cover letter that briefly explains the purpose of the enclosed document and a brief summary.  Click the link to download a Letter of Transmittal Template [Word doc].

Letters of Inquiry:  you may want to request information about a company or organization such as whether they anticipate job openings in the near future or whether they fund grant proposals from non-profit groups. In this case, you would send a letter of inquiry, asking for additional information. As with most business letters, keep your request brief, introducing yourself in the opening paragraph and then clearly stating your purpose and/or request in the second paragraph. If you need very specific information, consider placing your requests in list form for clarity. Conclude in a friendly way that shows appreciation for the help you will receive.

Follow-up Letters:  any time you have made a request of someone, write a follow-up letter expressing your appreciation for the time your letter-recipient has taken to respond to your needs or consider your job application. If you have had a job interview, the follow-up letter thanking the interviewer for his/her time is especially important for demonstrating your professionalism and attention to detail.

Letters within the professional context may take on many other purposes, such as communicating with suppliers, contractors, partner organizations, clients, government agencies, and so on. For additional examples of professional letters, take a look at the sample letters provided by David McMurrey in his online textbook on technical writing: Online Technical Writing: Examples, Cases & Models.

Image Descriptions

Figure 7.1.1 image description:

Design features of a 1-page memorandum.

• The logo or letterhead is at the top of the page and centred or right-aligned (in this case, it is the University of Victoria letterhead).
• “Memorandum” appears at the top of the page left-aligned in large, bold font.
• The header block (which appears under the “Memorandum” heading) includes a “to,” “from,” “date,” and “subject” in a vertical list. Those values are aligned vertically for readability.
• A dividing line separates the header block from the message.
• The message begins by answering, “Why am I reading this?”
• The body of the message gives the details: (“What do I need to know?”)
• There is a table that is nicely formatted. (The table has a caption above the table in bold and italics, column headers are bold and centred, and text is left aligned.)
• A closing paragraph summarizes and indicates what (if any) action is expected of the reader (Answering, “What would you like me to do now?”)
• The text of this document uses an appropriate serif body font (Times New Roman)
• There is also a signature (optional)

[Return to Figure 7.1.1]

Text Attribution

• “Professional Communications” chapter in Technical Writing by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, Michele DeSilva. This source is licensed under a CC BY-SA 4.0 International licence.

Media Attributions

• Texting Blackberry by alexyangphotography is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.0 licence.
• Email icon by Alexiuz AS is free for commercial use.
• Figure 7.1.1 Sample Memo, annotated.
• Figure 7.1.2 Sample letter of transmittal by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, Michele DeSilva is licensed under CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0 licence.

Proposals and progress reports are some of the most common types of reports you will likely find yourself writing in the workplace. These reports are persuasive in nature:  proposals attempt to persuade the reader to accept the writer’s proposed idea; progress reports assure the reader that the project is on time and on budget, or explain rationally why things might not be going according to the initial plan.

A proposal, in the technical sense, is a document that tries to persuade the reader to implement a proposed plan or approve a proposed project. Most businesses rely on effective proposal writing to ensure successful continuation of their business and to get new contracts. The writer tries to convince the reader that the proposed plan or project is worth doing (worth the time, energy, and expense necessary to implement or see through), that the author represents the best candidate for implementing the idea, and that it will result in tangible benefits.

Not that kind of proposal.

Proposals are often written in response to a Request For Proposals (RFP) by a government agency, organization, or company. The requesting body receives multiple proposals responding to their request, reviews the submitted proposals, and chooses the best one(s) to go forward. Thus, your proposal must persuade the reader that your idea is the one most worth pursuing. Proposals are persuasive documents intended to initiate a project and get the reader to authorize a course of action proposed in the document. These might include proposals to

• Perform a task (such as a feasibility study, a research project, etc.)
• Provide a product
• Provide a service

Proposals can have various purposes and thus take many forms. It may include sections such as the following:

• Introduction and/or background
• Problem statement
• Purpose/motivation/goal/objectives
• Definition of scope and approach
• Review of the state of the art
• Technical background
• Project description
• Schedule of work/timeline
• Budget
• Qualifications
• Conclusion

Four Kinds of Proposals

1. Solicited Proposals:  an organization identifies a situation or problem that it wants to improve or solve and issues an RFP (Request for Proposals) asking for proposals on how to address it. The requesting organization will vet proposals and choose the most convincing one, often using a detailed scoring rubric or weighted objectives chart to determine which proposal best responds to the request.
2. Unsolicited Proposals:  a writer perceives a problem or an opportunity and takes the initiative to propose a way to solve the problem or take advantage of the opportunity (without being requested to do so). This can often be the most difficult kind of proposal to get approved.
3. Internal Proposals:  these are written by and for someone within the same organization. Since both the writer and reader share the same workplace context, these proposals are generally shorter than external proposals, and usually address some way to improve a work-related situation (productivity, efficiency, profit, etc.). As internal documents, they are often sent as memos, or introduced with a memo if the proposal is lengthy.
4. External Proposals:  these are sent outside of the writer’s organization to a separate entity (usually to solicit business). Since these are external documents, they are usually sent as a formal report (if long), introduced by a cover letter (letter of transmittal). External proposals are usually sent in response to a Request for Proposals, but not always.

Proposals written as an assignment in a Technical Writing classes generally do the following:

1. Identify and define the problem that needs to be solved or the opportunity that can be taken advantage of. You must show that you clearly understand the problem/situation if you are to convince the reader that you can solve it.  Rubrics that assess proposals generally place significant weight (~20%) on clarity and accuracy of the problem definition.
2. Describe your proposed project, clearly defining the scope of what you propose to do. Often, it is best to give a general overview of your idea, and then break it down into more detailed sub-sections.
3. Indicate how your proposed solution will solve the problem and provide tangible benefits. Specifically, indicate how it will meet the objectives and abide by the constrains outlined in the problem definition. Give specific examples. Show the specific differences between “how things are now” and “how they could be.” Be as empirical as possible, but appeal to all appropriate persuasive strategies. Emphasize results, benefits, and feasibility of your proposed idea.
4. Include the practical details: propose a budget and a timeline for completing your project. Represent these graphically (budget table, and Gantt chart). Your timeline should include the major milestones or deliverables of the project, as well as dates or time frames for completion of each step.
5. Conclude with a final pitch that summarizes and emphasizes the benefits of implementing your proposed idea – but without sounding like an advertisement.

Additional Proposal Elements to Consider

1. Describe your qualifications to take on and/or lead this project; persuade the reader that you have the required skills, experience, and expertise to complete this job.
2. Decide what graphics to use to illustrate your ideas, present data, and enhance your pitch.
3. Include secondary research to enhance your credibility and the strength of your proposal.
4. Choose format; is this a memo to an internal audience or a formal report to an external audience? Does it require a letter of transmittal?

All proposals must be convincing, logical, and credible, and to do this, they must consider audience, purpose and tone.

Irish and Weiss urge readers to keep the following in mind:

An engineering proposal is not an advertisement. It must show, with objective language, clarity, and thoroughness, that the writers know what they are doing and will successfully complete the project.

Sample Proposal Organization

Each proposal will be unique in that it must address a particular audience, in a particular context, for a specific purpose. However, the following offers a fairly standard organization for many types of proposals:

Language Considerations

Proposals are fundamentally persuasive documents, so paying attention to the rhetorical situation—position of the reader (upward, lateral, downward or outward communication), the purpose of the proposal, the form, and the tone—is paramount.

• Clearly define your purpose and audience before you begin to write
• Be sure you have done research so you know what you are talking about
• Remain positive and constructive: you are seeking to improve a situation
• Be solution oriented; don’t blame or dwell on the negative
• Make your introduction very logical, objective, and empirical; don’t start off sounding like an advertisement or sounding biased; avoid logical fallacies
• Use primarily logical and ethical appeals; use emotional appeals sparingly

As always, adhere to the 7 Cs by making sure that your writing is

• Clear and Coherent:  don’t confuse your reader with unclear ideas or an illogically organized structure.
• Concise and Courteous:  don’t annoy your reader with clutter, unnecessary padding, inappropriate tone, or hard-to-read formatting.
• Concrete and Complete:  avoid vague generalities; give specifics. Don’t leave out necessary information.
• Correct:  don’t undermine your professional credibility by neglecting grammar and spelling, or by including inaccurate information.

The Life Cycle of a Project Idea

A great idea does not usually go straight from proposal to implementation. You may think it would be a great idea to construct a green roof on top of the Clearihue building, but before anyone gives you the go ahead for such an expensive and time-consuming project, they will need to know that you have done research to ensure the idea is cost effective and will actually work.  Figure 7.2.1 breaks down the various stages a project might go through, and identifies some of the typical communications tasks that might be required at each stage.

Most ideas start out as a proposal to determine if the idea is really feasible, or to find out which of several options will be most advantageous. So before you propose the actual green roof, you propose to study whether or not it is a feasible idea. Before you recommend a data storage system, you propose to study 3 different systems to find out which is the best one for this particular situation. Your proposal assumes the idea is worth looking into, convinces the reader that it is worth spending the time and resources to look into, and gives detailed information on how you propose to do the “finding out.”

Figure 7.2.1 Phases of a project and some accompanying communications tasks. [Image description]

Once a project is in the implementation phase, the people who are responsible for the project will likely want regular status updates and/or progress reports to make sure that the project is proceeding on time and on budget, or to get a clear, rational explanation for why it is not. To learn more about Progress Reports, go to 7.3 Progress Reports.

Image Descriptions

Figure 7.2.1 image description:

Once there is an idea, a project goes through a design process made up of four stages.

1. Pre-project planning.
   • Problem Definition – identifying needs, goals, objectives, and constraints.
   • Define context and do research.
   • Identify potential projects.
   • Public engagement projects; Stakeholder consultation.
2. Project Development.
   • Propose a project (budget, timeline, etc.).
   • Create or respond to a request for proposals, evaluate proposals.
   • Develop or design solution concepts.
   • Project management plan.
   • Feasibility Studies, Recommendation Reports).
3. Project Implementation.
   • Write contracts and apply for permits for construction and building sites.
   • Progress reports, status updates.
   • Documentation of project.
   • Continued research and design improvements.
4. Project completion.
   • Final reports and documentation.
   • Close contracts.
   • Ongoing Support: User Guides, Troubleshooting, FAQs.

[Return to Figure 7.2.1]

Media Attributions

• Couple Love Marriage by Clker-Free-Vector-Images is licensed under a Pixabay License.
• Figure 7.2.1 Phases of a project and some accompanying communications tasks by Suzan Last is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 licence. Brilliance, idea, think icon by The Pictographers is free for commercial use.

You write a progress report to inform a supervisor, associate, or client about progress you have made on a project over a specific period of time. Periodic progress reports are common on projects that go on for several months (or more). Whoever is paying for this project wants to know whether tasks are being completed on schedule and on budget.  If the project is not on schedule or on budget, they want to know why and what additional costs and time will be needed.

Progress reports answer the following questions for the reader:

•  How much of the work is complete?
• What part of the work is currently in progress?
• What work remains to be done?
• When and how will the remaining work be completed?
• What changes, problems or unexpected issues, if any, have arisen?
• How is the project going in general?

Purpose of a Progress Report

The main function of a progress report is persuasive:  to reassure clients and supervisors that you are making progress, that the project is going smoothly, and that it will be completed by the expected date — or to give reasons why any of those might not be the case. They also offer the opportunity to do the following:

• Provide a brief look at preliminary findings or in-progress work on the project
• Give your clients or supervisors a chance to evaluate your work on the project and to suggest or request changes
• Give you a chance to discuss problems in the project and thus to forewarn the recipients
• Force you to establish a work schedule, so that you will complete the project on time.

Format of a Progress Report

Depending on the size of the progress report, the length and importance of the project, and the recipient, a progress report can take forms ranging from a short informal conversation to a detailed, multi-paged report. Most commonly, progress reports are delivered in following forms:

• Memo:  a short, semi-formal report to someone within your organization (can range in length from 1-4 pages)
• Letter:  a short, semi-formal report sent to someone outside your organization
• Formal report:  a long, formal report sent to someone within or outside of your organization
• Presentation:  an oral presentation given directly to the target audience.

Organizational Patterns for Progress Reports

The recipient of a progress report wants to see what you’ve accomplished on the project, what you are working on now, what you plan to work on next, and how the project is going in general. The information is usually arranged with a focus either on time or on task, or a combination of the two:

• Focus on time:  shows time period (previous, current, and future) and tasks completed or scheduled to be completed in each period
• Focus on specific tasks:  shows order of tasks (defined milestones) and progress made in each time period
• Focus on larger goals:  focus on the overall effect of what has been accomplished.

Information can also be arranged by report topic. You should refer to established milestones or deliverables outlined in your original proposal or job specifications. Whichever organizational strategy you choose, your report will likely contain the elements described below.

Descriptive technical writing uses a combination of visuals and text to both “show” and “tell” the reader about the information being conveyed. Like more creative descriptions, technical descriptions sometimes draw on the “five senses” and metaphorical comparisons (analogies) to allow the reader to fully conceptualize what is being described. More often, however, they rely on concrete, measurable descriptors. Technical descriptions can take many forms, depending on purpose and audience. Descriptions can range from a brief sentence, to a paragraph, a whole section of a report, or an entire manual.  Poorly written technical descriptions can cause confusion, waste time, and even result in catastrophe!  Technical product descriptions are often legally required to ensure safety and compliance.  Attention to detail is critical.

Product specifications require detailed descriptions of design features; instructions often require specific descriptive detail to “show” the reader what to do. Some general categories of technical descriptions include the following:

• Mechanism Descriptions:  provide a detailed overview the physical aspects of a tool, machine or other mechanical device that has moving parts and is designed to perform a specific function. These could be product descriptions for sales or manufacturing, documentation of design specifications, info-graphics, etc.  This chapter focuses in detail on this kind of description.
• Process Descriptions:  detail a series of events (natural/biological/ecological, mechanical, social, or psychological phenomenon) that happen in particular sequence in order to achieve a specific outcome. These can be categorized into non-instructional processes (such as a process analyses of how an internal combustion engine works, or natural processes like photosynthesis) and instructional process (such as recommended/required procedures and explicit step-by-step instructions to be followed). (See Section 7.7 for detailed information on Writing Instructions).
• Definitions:  clarify the specific meaning, often related to a specific context, or express the essential nature of the terms being defined. These can range in length from a simple clarifying phrase to an extended document of several pages. Definitions will often include detailed descriptions and visuals to illustrate ideas. Click on the link below to view a student PowerPoint presentation on how to write effective definitions for technical purposes. This presentation is included with express permission of the student.

Definitions in Technical Writing – Sample student presentation [PDF]

Technical Description of a Mechanism

Mechanism descriptions should provide a clear understanding of the object being described, including

• General appearance and physical properties
• Overall function/purpose
• Component parts
• How the parts interact to create a functioning whole.

The reader should be able to clearly picture, and therefore understand, the nature of the object being described, what it does, and how it works.

In order to achieve this clarity for the reader, the writer must choose significant details and organize information logically. Select details that can be described precisely and measurably, such as:

• color
• materials
• texture, smell, taste
• shape
• component parts
• finish
• size
• properties
• patterns, designs
• dimensions
• principles at work
• interactions

Depending on the reader’s need, the description may range from a general overview requiring only a few sentences to a multi-chapter manual detailing every aspect of the mechanism’s parts and functions in order to troubleshoot technical problems and complete repairs. For a fun example of the latter, see the Star Trek: The Next Generation: Technical Manual (cover depicted in Figure 7.4.1), which provides detailed descriptions of all equipment and technology used aboard the fictional U.S.S. Enterprise-D.

Figure 7.4.1 Cover Page of “Star Trek: The Next Generation: Technical Manual”.

Before you begin to draft your description, you must consider your purpose and audience: Why does your audience need this description? What will they use it for? Are you describing different types of solar panels for the average consumers to help them choose the one that best fits their needs? Are you giving schematics to technicians and installers?

Once you have your purpose and audience clearly in focus, draft a description that includes the following elements:

1. Definition: What is it, and what is its main purpose?
2. Overview: Describe the mechanism’s overall appearance (“big picture”).
3. Components: Describe the main component parts in labeled sections; consider the order of information carefully here. Create a logical connection between each component described.
4. Explanation: how do the parts work together to fulfill its function? What key principles govern its functioning? Consider how much detail is necessary here for your intended audience.
5. Visuals: include graphics that clearly illustrate the mechanism and/or its parts. Show the device as a whole; consider showing specific details in expanded views, cut-aways, or labeled diagrams. You may even embed or link to videos showing the device in action.
6. Conclusion: depending on the purpose, you might review product’s history, availability, manufacturing, costs, warnings, etc.)
7. References: Sources you have used in your description, or additional sources of information available (if relevant).

You might consider using a template, like the Technical Description Template below, keeping in mind that while templates can be helpful guides, they do not provide much flexibility and may not work for all situations.

Sample Descriptions

Examine the description of the “Up Goer Five” in Figure 7.4.2 (click on image for larger version). Who might the intended audience be?

Figure 7.4.2 A description of the blueprints for NASA’s Saturn Five rocket using only the 1000 most commonly-used English words

Compare the description in Figure 7.4.2 to the information given on the NASA website about the Mars Curiosity Rover.

Note the differences in the level of detail, vocabulary, and overall purpose of the descriptions.  If you used the information on the NASA site to fill in the Technical Description Template, you might end up with something like the following chart.

You may find that some of these elements are not necessary; again, consider what your target audience already knows. Strike a balance between unnecessarily stating the obvious and incorrectly assuming your readers have knowledge that they lack.

In refining the details of your description and its component parts, consider the following:

• Organization: Use a logical principle to organize your description
  • Top to bottom (or foundation upward)
  • Left to right (or right to left)
  • Inside to outside (or outside to inside)
  • Most important to least important features
  • Central component to peripherals
  • Material properties, etc.
• Language:  Use specific, precise, concrete terms – avoid vague or overly-general terms
  • Use correct terminology – define terms as necessary for your audience
  • Use analogy to describe an unfamiliar thing in terms of a familiar thing
  • Use objective language – no “ad speak” or subjective terms
  • Use present tense, active verbs to describe how the device appears and what it does
  • Use words that create vivid and specific pictures in the reader’s mind.

EXERCISE 7.2 Practice technical description

Choose a common, everyday object (such as one of the objects in Figure 7.4.3) and draft a technical description for an audience unfamiliar with the object. Start by imagining a target audience and purpose, and then try filling in the Technical Description Template with detailed information. Using the information in your template, draft a short description of 1-2 paragraphs, and add properly-captioned visuals.

Figure 7.4.3 Common objects for practice description.

Media Attributions

• Fig. 7.4.1. Thumbnail cover of R. Sturnback and M. Okuna, Star Trek: The Next Generation: Technical Manual. New York: Pocket Books, 1991. For noncommercial, educational use only.
• Figure 7.4.2 A description of the blueprints for NASA’s Saturn Five rocket using only the 1000 most commonly-used English words by Randall Munroe is licensed under CC BY-NC 2.5 licence.
• Figure 7.4.3 Corkscrew by Simon Brass is licensed under CC BY 2.0 licence.
• Figure 7.4.3 Bike is licensed under CC BY 2.0 licence.

Long reports, such as Feasibility and Recommendation Reports, are most often the final step in a series of documents, often beginning with a Proposal and perhaps a series of Progress Reports. The reports in this rather loosely defined category are variously called feasibility reports, recommendation reports, evaluation reports, assessment reports, etc. They all do roughly the same thing—provide a careful study of a situation or problem, and often recommend what should be done to improve the situation. There are some subtle differences among these types, and names for them can vary.

Feasibility Reports

A feasibility report studies a situation (for example, a problem or opportunity) and a plan for doing something about it, and then determines whether that plan is “feasible”—whether it is practical in terms of current technology, economics, time frame, social needs and preferences, and so on. The feasibility report answers the question “Should we implement Plan X?” by stating “yes,” “no,” or sometimes a “maybe” or “under certain conditions.” Not only does it indicate whether the idea is feasible, it also provides the data and the reasoning behind that determination; conversely, it might outline the reasons why the idea cannot or should not be implemented, or what obstacles must be overcome before the idea can become feasible. Typical questions addressed in these reports include

• Is it possible?  Can this be done within the allotted budget, time frame, legal and regulatory conditions, and technical capabilities?
• Is it financially viable?  Even if it falls within our budget, should we do it?  Will it have long term benefits that outweigh costs? Is there a less expensive or financially risky way to achieving the same result? How does it compare to the cost of doing nothing about this situation?
• Will it be accepted by the community?  Will people be in favor of this idea? Will anyone be opposed to it?  How much public support is necessary to make this successful? (What kind of stakeholder consultation might be necessary to determine this?)

Recommendation Reports

A recommendation reports starts from a stated need; it offers a selection of solution options, presents a detailed comparative analysis of the options, and then recommends one, some, or none. For example, a company might be looking at grammar-checking software and want a recommendation on which product is the best fit for them. As the report writer on this project, you could study the market for this type of application and recommend one particular product, 2-3 possible products (differing perhaps in their strengths and their weaknesses), or none (maybe none of them are appropriate for the client’s specific needs). The recommendation report answers the question “Which option should we choose?” (or in some cases “Which are the best options?) by recommending Product B, or maybe both Products B and C, or none of the products. These recommendations might arise from questions such as

• What should we do about Problem X?
• What is the best way to provide Function or Service A?
• Should we use Technology X or Technology Y to perform Function Z?

Evaluation Reports

An evaluation report provides a judgment or assessment rather than a yes-no-maybe answer or a recommendation. It provides a studied opinion on the value or worth of something. For example, for over a year the city of Austin had free bus transportation in an attempt to increase ridership and reduce automobile traffic. Did it work? Was it worthwhile?—These are questions an evaluation report would attempt to answer. This type of report compares a thing to a set of requirements (or criteria) and determines how well it meets those requirements. (And of course, this may result in a recommendation: to continue the project, scrap it, change it, or other possibilities.)

As you can see, these distinctions are rather fine, and they overlap somewhat. In real-world writing, these types often combine; you might see elements of the recommendation report combine with the feasibility report, for example.

Test your knowledge.

Typical Contents of Recommendation and Feasibility Reports

Whatever variety of feasibility or recommendation report you write, whatever name people call it—most of the sections and the organization of those sections are roughly the same.

The structural principle fundamental to this type of report is this:  you provide not only your recommendation, choice, or judgment, but also the data, analysis, discussion, and the conclusions leading to it. That way, readers can check your findings, your logic, and your conclusions to make sure your methodology was sound and that they can agree with your recommendation. Your goal is to convince the reader to agree with you by using your careful research, detailed analysis, rhetorical style, and documentation.

The general problem-solving approach for a Recommendation Report entails the steps shown in the example below.

These steps generally coincide with how you will organize your information.  Your report will be divided into several sections that will likely include most or all of the following elements:

1. INTRODUCTION:  the introduction should clearly indicate the document’s purpose. Your introduction will discuss the “unsatisfactory situation” that has given rise to this report, and the requirements that must be met (the Problem Definition). Your reader may also need some background. Finally, provide an overview of the contents of the report.
2. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND:  some recommendation or feasibility reports may require technical discussion in order to make the rest of the report meaningful. The dilemma with this kind of information is whether to put it in a section of its own or to fit it into the comparison sections where it is relevant. For example, a discussion of power and speed of tablet computers is going to necessitate some discussion of RAM, megahertz, and processors. Should you put that in a section that compares the tablets according to power and speed? Should you keep the comparison neat and clean, limited strictly to the comparison and the conclusion? Maybe all the technical background can be pitched in its own section—either toward the front of the report or in an appendix.
3. REQUIREMENTS AND CRITERIA:  a critical part of feasibility and recommendation reports is the discussion of the requirements (objectives and constraints) you’ll use to reach the final decision or recommendation. Here are some examples:
   • If you’re trying to recommend a tablet computer for use by employees, your requirements are likely to involve size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality, durability, and battery function.
   • If you’re looking into the feasibility of providing every student at Austin Community College with an ID on the ACC computer network, you’d need define the basic requirements of such a program—what it would be expected to accomplish, problems that it would have to avoid, and so on.
   • If you’re evaluating the recent program of free bus transportation in Austin, you’d need to know what was expected of the program and then compare its actual results to those requirements.

Requirements can be defined in several ways:

Numerical Values:  many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement—the tablet should cost no more than $900.

Yes/no Values:  some requirements are simply a yes-no question. Does the tablet come equipped with Bluetooth? Is the car equipped with voice recognition?

Ratings Values:  in some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, your organization might want a tablet that has an ease-of-use rating of at least “good” by some nationally accepted ratings group. Or you may have to assign ratings yourself.

The requirements section should also discuss how important the individual requirements are in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where no one option is best in all categories of comparison. One option is cheaper; another has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more durable. Set up your requirements so that they dictate a “winner” from situation where there is no obvious winner. A “weighted objectives chart” or “Decision Matrix” is often used in these cases.

4. DISCUSSION OF SOLUTION OPTIONS:  In certain kinds of feasibility or recommendation reports, you’ll need to explain how you narrowed the field of choices down to the ones your report focuses on. Often, this follows right after the discussion of the requirements. Your basic requirements may well narrow the field down for you. But there may be other considerations that disqualify other options—explain these as well.

Additionally, you may need to provide brief technical descriptions of the options themselves. Don’t get this mixed up with the comparison that comes up in the next section. In this description section, you provide a general discussion of the options so that readers will know something about them. The discussion at this stage is not comparative. It’s just a general orientation to the options. In the tablets example, you might want to give some brief, general specifications on each model about to be compared.

5. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS: one of the most important parts of a feasibility or recommendation report is the comparison of the options. Remember that you include this section so that readers can follow the logic of your analysis and come up with different conclusions if they desire. This comparison can be structured using a “block” (whole-to-whole) approach, or an “alternating” (point-by-point) approach.

You might compare 3 options (1, 2, and 3) using three criteria for comparison (A, B, and C).  If you were comparing tablets, you’d likely use the point-by-point approach, having a section that compared all three options based on cost (criteria A), another section that compared them on battery function, and so on. You wouldn’t have a section that discussed everything about option 1, another that discussed everything about option 2, and so on. That would not be effective or efficient, because you still have to make direct comparisons somewhere near the end of your discussion (such as in a weighted objectives chart).

Each of these comparative sections should end with a conclusion that sums up the relative strengths and weaknesses of each option and indicates which option is the best choice in that particular category of comparison. Of course, it won’t always be easy to state a clear winner—you may have to qualify the conclusions in various ways, providing multiple conclusions for different conditions.

If you were writing an evaluation report, you wouldn’t be comparing options. Instead, you’d be comparing the thing being evaluated against the requirements placed upon it, the expectations people had of it. For example, Capital Metro had a program of more than a year of free bus transportation.  What was expected of that program? Did the program meet those expectations?

6. SUMMARY TABLE: after the individual comparisons, include a summary table (such as a Weighted Objectives Chart) that summarizes the conclusions from the comparative analysis section. Some readers are more likely to pay attention to details in a table than in paragraphs; however, you still have to write up a clear summary paragraph of your findings.

7. CONCLUSIONS:  the conclusions section of a feasibility or recommendation report amalgamates all of the conclusions you have already reached in each of the comparison sections. In this section, you restate the individual conclusions, for example, which model had the best price, which had the best battery function, and so on. You could give a summary of the relative strengths and weakness of each option based on how well they meet the criteria.

This section has to go further. It must untangle all the conflicting conclusions and somehow reach the final conclusion, which is the one that states which is the best choice. Thus, the conclusion section first lists the primary conclusions—the simple, single-category ones. Then it must state secondary conclusions—the ones that balance conflicting primary conclusions. For example, if one tablet is the least inexpensive but has poor battery function, but another is the most expensive but has good battery function, which do you choose and why? The secondary conclusion would state the answer to this dilemma.

8. RECOMMENDATIONS: the final section of feasibility and recommendation reports states the recommendations which flow directly from your conclusions and directly address the problem outlined in the introduction. These may sometimes be repetitive, but remember that some readers may skip right to the recommendation section. Also, there will be some cases where there may be a best choice but you wouldn’t want to recommend it. Early in their history, laptop computers were heavy and unreliable—there may have been one model that was better than the rest, but even it was not worth having. You may want to recommend further research, a pilot project, or a re-design of one of the options discussed.

The recommendation section should outline what further work needs to be done, based solidly on the information presented previously in the report and responding directly to the needs outlined in the beginning. In some cases, you may need to recommend several ranked options based on different possibilities.

Revision Checklist for Feasibility and Recommendation Reports

As you reread and revise your feasibility or recommendation report, ensure that you have included all of the sections and elements described below. Ensure you open each section and read the key content elements for each document section.

Text Attributions

• This chapter was adapted from David Murrey’s “Recommendation and Feasibility Reports”  in Online Technical Writing, which is under a CC BY 4.0 International License.

Writing in an academic context often entails engaging with the words and ideas of other authors. Therefore, being able to correctly and fluently incorporate and engage with other writers’ words and ideas in your own writing is a critical academic skill. There are three main ways to integrate evidence from sources into your writing: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing. Each form requires a citation because you are using another person’s words and/or ideas. Even if you do not quote directly, but paraphrase source content and express it in your own words, you still must give credit to the original authors for their ideas.  Similarly, if you quote someone who says something that is “common knowledge,” you still must cite this quotation, as you are using their sentences structure, organizational logic, and/or syntax.

Integrating Quotations

WHY: Using direct quotations in your argument has several benefits:

• Integrating quotations provide direct evidence from reliable sources to support your argument.
• Using the words of credible sources conveys your credibility by showing you have done research into the area you are writing about and consulted relevant and authoritative sources.
• Selecting effective quotations illustrates that you can extract the important aspects of the information and use them effectively in your own argument.

WHEN: Be careful not to over-quote.  Quotations should be used sparingly because too many quotations can interfere with the flow of ideas and make it seem like you don’t have ideas of your own. Paraphrasing can be more effective in some cases.

So when should you use quotations?

• If the language of the original source uses the best possible phrasing or imagery, and no paraphrase or summary could be as effective; or
• If the use of language in the quotation is itself the focus of your analysis (e.g., if you are analyzing the author’s use of a particular image, metaphor, or other rhetorical strategy).

How to Integrate Quotations Correctly

Integrating quotations into your writing happens on two levels:  argumentative and grammatical. At the argument level, the quotation is being used to illustrate or support a point that you have made, and you will follow it with some analysis, explanation, comment, or interpretation that ties that quote to your argument. Never quote and run: don’t leave your reader to determine the relevance of the quotation. A quotation, statistic or bit of data cannot speak for itself; you must provide context and an explanation for quotations you use.  Essentially, you should create a “quotation sandwich” (see Figure C-1). Remember the acronym I.C.E. → Introduce – Cite – Explain.

Figure C-1 Quotation sandwich.

The second level of integration is grammatical. This involves integrating the quotation into your own sentences so that it flows smoothly and fits logically and syntactically. There are three main methods to integrate quotations grammatically:

1. Seamless Integration Method: embed the quoted words as if they were an organic part of your sentence (if you read the sentence aloud, your listeners would not know there was a quotation).
2. Signal Phrase Method: use a signal phrase (Author + Verb) to introduce the quotation, clearly indicating that the quotation comes from a specific source
3. Colon Method: introduce the quotation with a complete sentence ending in a colon.

Consider the following opening sentence (and famous comma splice) from A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens, as an example:

1. Seamless Integration: embed the quotation, or excerpts from the quotation, as a seamless part of your sentence

Charles Dickens begins his novel with the paradoxical observation that the eighteenth century was both “the best of times” and “the worst of times” [1].

2. Signal Phrase: introduce the author and then the quote using a signal verb (scroll down to see a list of common verbs that signal you are about to quote someone)

Describing the eighteenth century, Charles Dickens observes, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” [1].

3. Colon: if your own introductory words form a complete sentence, you can use a colon to introduce and set off the quotation. This can give the quotation added emphasis.

Dickens defines the eighteenth century as a time of paradox: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” [1].

The eighteenth century was a time of paradox: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” [1].

Editing Quotations

When you use quotation marks around material, this indicates that you have used the exact words of the original author. However, sometimes the text you want to quote will not fit grammatically or clearly into your sentence without making some changes. Perhaps you need to replace a pronoun in the quote with the actual noun to make the context clear, or perhaps the verb tense does not fit. There are two key ways to edit a quotation to make it fit grammatically with your own sentence:

• Use square brackets: to reflect changes or additions to a quote, place square brackets around any words that have been changed or added.
• Use ellipses (3 dots): to show that some text has been removed, use the ellipses. Three dots indicate that some words have been removed from the sentence; 4 dots indicate that a substantial amount of text has been deleted, including the period at the end of a sentence.

You are allowed to change the original words, to shorten the quoted material or integrate material grammatically, but only if you signal those changes appropriately with square brackets or ellipses:

Example 1:  Petroski observed that “[e]ngineers are always striving for success, but failure is seldom far from their minds” [3; p. 175].

Example 2:  Petroski recounts the story of a large bridge that was constructed at the beginning of the twentieth century in Quebec, saying that “by the time [it was done], in 1917, almost ninety construction workers [were] killed in the course of building the $25 million structure” [3; p. 175].

Example 3:  “Planners expected that when completed the … bridge would set a world record for long-span bridges of all types” [3; p. 175].

Integrating Paraphrases and Summaries

Instead of using direct quotations, you can paraphrase and summarize evidence to integrate it into your argument more succinctly. Both paraphrase and summary requires you to read the source carefully, understand it, and then rewrite the idea in your own words. Using these forms of integration demonstrates your understanding of the source, because rephrasing requires a good grasp of the core ideas. Paraphrasing and summarizing also makes integrating someone else’s ideas into your own sentences and paragraphs a little easier, as you do not have to merge grammar and writing style—you don’t need to worry about grammatical integration of someone else’s language.

Paraphrase and summary differ in that paraphrases focuses on a smaller, specific section of text that when paraphrased may be close to the length of the original. Summaries, on the other hand, are condensations of large chunks of text, so they are much shorter than the original and capture only the main ideas.